; 


-V  '  ' 

\ 

\  v  •• 


Seym  our 


PAi  175 


COLLEGE  SERIES  OF  GREEK  AUTHORS 


EDITED  UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

JOHN  WILLIAMS  WHITE  and  THOMAS  D.  SEYMOUR. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE 

Language  and  Verse 


OF 

Homer 


BY 

THOMAS  D.  SEYMOUR 


Hillhouse  Professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  College, 


bostok  college  library 

CHESTNUT  RIEL,  M ASS, 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  •  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1885,  by 
John  Williams  White  and  Thomas  D.  Seymour 
jh  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
SARAH  H.  SEYMOUR 

516.4 


140486 


GTfje  satfjenseum  $3  r  e  s  $ 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO¬ 
PRIETORS  •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


This  Introduction  is  not  designed  to  lay  stress  on  Ho¬ 
meric  language  as  contrasted  with  Homeric  poetry,  but  is 
intended  to  relieve  the  commentary  of  explanations  of 
dialectic  forms  and  metrical  peculiarities,  and  to  call  the 
student’s  attention  to  the  most  noteworthy  characteristics 
of  Homeric  style  and  syntax.  In  reading  Homer,  certain 
questions,  which  cannot  be  avoided,  as  to  the  origin  and  rela¬ 
tion  of  forms,  will  attract  less  of  the  pupil’s  attention  and 
demand  less  of  the  teacher’s  time  in  the  class-room  if  the 
facts  are  stated  in  their  proper  connection ;  the  grouping  of 
these  facts  will  make  them  more  intelligible  and  more 
easily  remembered. 

Some  peculiarities  of  form  have  not  been  mentioned  here, 
since  they  occur  so  seldom  that  they  may  be  treated  in  the 
commentary  just  as  conveniently;  while  for  divers  reasons 
other  anomalies  which  are  no  more  frequent  have  been 
discussed.  Nor  has  the  author  planned  to  make  the  col¬ 
lection  of  examples  complete ;  the  student  should  be  en¬ 
couraged  to  gather  illustrations  for  himself. 

Most  of  this  Introduction  is  of  a  nature  to  be  read  rather 
than  committed  to  memory.  Much  of  it  is  unnecessary  for 
a  beginner,  but  the  author  hopes  that  none  of  it  is  beyond 
the  comprehension  and  appreciation  of  the  student.  While 
parts  of  it  can  be  made  fully  useful  only  by  a  wise  teacher, 
most  of  it  should  be  helpful  to  the  undirected  student. 


Yale  College,  July,  1885. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


I.  Homeric  Style. 


PAGE 

§  1.  a.  Translations .  1 

b.  Change  of  Subject .  7 

c.  Direct  Discourse .  7 

d.  Principal  Clauses .  8 

f.  Order  of  Words .  9 

n.  Epithets . 11 

s.  Synonymous  Expressions  .13 

t.  Epexegesis . 13 

w.  Stereotyped  Expressions  . .  14 

§  2.  a.  Pareehesis . 15 

e.  Comparisons . 16 

1.  Asyndeton  . 18 

o.  Chiasmus . 19 

p.  Epanalepsis . 20 

r.  Litotes . 20 

s.  Periphrasis .  21 

t.  Zeugma . 21 

u.  Hysteron  Proteron . 22 


v.  Later  Change  in  Words. .  .22 


II.  Homeric  Syntax. 

§  3.  b.  Modes . 24 

d.  Cases . 25 

f.  Genitive  Absolute . 26 

g.  Dative  of  Interest . 26 

1.  Particles . 28 

m.  Interrogative  Particles ...  .29 

n.  Parataxis . 30 


q.  Correlative  Construction  .  .31 

III.  Homeric  Dialect. 


PAGE 

§  8.  Crasis . 40 

9.  Hiatus . 40 

10.  Elision  . 41 

11.  Apocope . 42 

12.  Consonants . 43 

13.  Metathesis  . . . 45 

14.  The  Digamma . 45 

15.  Special  Case-Endings . 49 

16.  Eirst  Declension . 50 

17.  Second  Declension  .  . . 51 

18.  Third  Declension . 52 

19.  Anomalous  Forms . 55 

20.  Adjectives . 56 

21.  Patronymics . 57 

22.  Comparison  of  Adjectives  . .  .59 

23.  Numerals . 60 

24.  Pronouns . 62 

25.  Augment  and  Reduplication  .65 

26.  Verb-Endings . 67 

27.  Subjunctive  Mode . 70 

28.  Optative  Mode . 70 

29.  Contract  Verbs . 70 

30.  Future  and  First  Aorist . 72 

31.  Perfect . 73 

32.  Middle  Voice . 74 

33.  Passive  Voice . 75 

34.  Verbs  in  -yui . 75 

35.  Second  Aorist  without  Varia¬ 

ble  Vowel . 77 

36.  Iterative  Forms . 77 

37.  Prepositions . 78 

38.  Adverbs . 79 


§  4.  Introductory 

5.  Vowels . 

6.  Contraction  . 

7 .  Synizesis . . . . 


33 


IV.  Homeric  Verse. 


..37  39.  Heroic  Hexameter 

..39  40.  Caesural  Pauses  .. 

..39  41.  Quantity . 

Indexes,  95. 


81 

83 

86 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


§  1.  a.  Translations.  Matthew  Arnold  enumerates 
four  essential  characteristics  of  Homer’s  poetry:1  “Homer 
is  rapid  in  his  movement,  Homer  is  plain  in  his  words  and 
style,  Homer  is  simple  in  his  ideas,  Homer  is  noble  in 
his  manner.  Cowper  renders  him  ill  because  he  is  slow 
in  his  movement  and  elaborate  in  his  style  ;  Pope  renders 
him  ill  because  he  is  artificial  both  in  his  style  and  in 
his  words ;  Chapman  renders  him  ill  because  he  is  fantastic 
in  his  ideas ;  Mr.  Newman  renders  him  ill  because  he  is  odd 
in  his  words  and  ignoble  in  his  manner.”  Or  in  other  words  s 
“  Between  Cowper  and  Homer  there  is  interposed  the  mist 
of  Cowper’s  elaborate  Miltonic  manner,  entirely  alien  to  the 
flowing  rapidity  of  Homer ;  between  Pope  and  Homer  there 
is  interposed  the  mist  of  Pope’s  literary,  artificial  manner, 
entirely  alien  to  the  plain  naturalness  of  Homer’s  manner ; 
between  Chapman  and  Homer  there  is  interposed  the  mist 
of  the  fancifulness  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  entirely  alien  to 
the  plain  directness  of  Plomer’s  thought  and  feeling ;  while 
between  Mr.  Newman  and  Homer  is  interposed  a  cloud  of 
more  than  Egyptian  thickness,  —  namely,  a  manner,  in  Mr. 
Newman’s  version  eminently  ignoble,  while  Homer’s  manner 
is  eminently  noble.” 

Jf  poets  and  masters  have  thus  failed,  it  is  evident  that  it 
is  no  easy  achievement  to  translate  Homer  well,  to  be  at 
the  same  time  rapid,  plain,  simple,  and  noble,  —  ov  7ra)?  a/xa 

1  Essays  in  Criticism,  Boston,  1865,  pp.  284  ff.,  or  Studies  in  Celtic  Literature 
and  on  Translating  Homer ,  Macmillan,  N.Y.,  1883,  pp.  138  ff. 


2 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  «. 


7 rdvra  Svvrjaecu  avrbs  eXecrOcu.  The  beginner  can  at  least  be 
simple ;  he  should  aim  to  attain  the  other  qualities  also. 

It  is  instructive  to  compare  different  translations  of  a 
famous  passage,  ©  555  ff. :  — 

d)?  S’  or  iv  ovpavw  aarpa  (fraetvrjv  dptcfn  aeXrjvigv 

cfyaiver  dpirrperrea,  ore  r  eifkero  vrjveptos  aWpp  • 

etc  r  e<fiavev  rrdaai  a/coirtal  /cal  n rpcooves  d/cpoi 

/cal  vairat  •  ovpavodev  8'  ap  vireppa^rj  aarrero ?  aWrjp, 

rcavra  8e  r  et8erat  aarpa  •  <ye<y7]6e  8e  re  (bpeva  rroLpugv' 

roaaa  piearjyv  vebdv  rjhe  "BidvOoio  podwv 

Tpcocov  /caiovrwv  rrvpd  (palvero  T \166t  rrpo. 

'XJ'Xl  ap  ev  ire8i(p  rrvpd  /caiero,  Trap  8e  e/caarw 
eiaro  rrevrp/covra  aekai  7 rnpo?  aWopuevoio. 

17T7T0L  8e  Kpl  XevKov  epeirropuevoL  /cal  oXvpas, 
earaores  reap'  o^eacf)iv,  evdpovov  ’Hoi  pbipivov. 

This  is  translated  by  Chapman:1  — 

1  The  Iliads  of  Homer ,  Prince  of  Poets,  never  before  in  any  language  truly 
translated,  with  a  comment  upon  some  of  his  chief  places,  done  according  to  the 
Greek  by  George  Chapman.  Of  this  translation,  A-B,  H-A  were  published  in 
1598.  The  first  twelve  books  of  the  Iliad  were  published  in  1610,  and  the 
other  twelve  in  1611.  The  first  half  of  the  Odyssey  was  published  in  1614,  and 
the  rest  in  1615.  Chapman  was  about  six  years  older  than  Shakespeare.  The 
reader  will  notice  that  the  metre  is  the  “common  metre’5  of  our  hymn-books. 

Chapman  says  in  his  “  Preface  to  the  Reader  ”  “  Alwaies  conceiving  how 
pedanticall  and  absurd  an  affectation  it  is,  in  the  interpretation  of  any  Author 
(much  more  of  Homer)  to  turn  him  word  for  word ;  when  (according  to  Horace 
and  other  best  lawgivers  to  translators)  it  is  the  part  of  every  knowing  and 
judiciall  interpreter,  not  to  follow  the  number  and  order  of  the  words  but  the 
material  things  themselves,  and  sentences  to  weigh  diligently ;  and  to  clothe 
and  adorne  them  with  words,  and  such  a  stile  and  form  of  oration  as  are  most 
apt  for  the  language  into  which  they  are  converted.  If  I  have  not  turned 
him  in  any  place  falsly  (as  all  other  his  interpreters  have  in  many,  and  most 
of  his  chief e  places;)  if  I  have  not  left  behind  me  any  of  his  sentence,  ele- 
gancie,  height,  intention  and  invention  .  if  in  some  few  places  ...  I  be  somthing 
paraphrasticall  and  faulty;  is  it  justice  in  that  poore  fault  (if  they  will  needs 
have  it  so)  to  drowne  all  the  rest  of  my  labour.” 

Pope  criticises  Chapman’s  translation  as  “  loose  and  rambling,”  and  for  its 
“frequent  interpolations.”  “Pie  appears  to  have  had  a  strong  affectation  of 
extracting  new  meanings  out  of  his  author.  .  .  .  But  that  which  is  to  be  allowed 
him,  and  which  very  much  contributed  to  cover  his  defects,  is  a  daring,  fiery 


j  1,  «■] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


3 


“  Fires  round  about  them  shinde 
As  when  about  the  silver  Moone,  when  air  is  free  from  winde, 

And  stars  shine  cleare  ;  to  whose  sweete  beames,  high  prospects, 
and  the  brows 

Of  all  steepe  liils  and  pinnacles,  thrust  up  themselves  for  showes  ; 
And  even  the  lowly  vallies  joy,  to  glitter  in  their  sight, 

When  the  unmeasur’d  firmament,  bursts  to  disclose  her  light, 

And  all  the  signes  in  heaven  are  seene,  that  glad  the  shepheards 
hart ; 

So  many  fires  disclosde  their  beames,  made  by  the  Trojan  part, 
Before  the  face  of  llion ;  and  her  bright  turrets  show’d. 

A  thousand  courts  of  guard  kept  fires  ;  and  ever}7  guard  allow’d 
Fiftie  stout  men,  by  whom  their  horse,  eate  oates  and  hard  white 
corne, 

And  all  did  wilfully  expect,  the  silver-throned  morne.” 

Pope’s  translation 1  follows :  — 

“  And  beaming  fires  illumin’d  all  the  ground, 

As  when  the  moon,  refulgent  lamp  of  night ! 

O’er  heaven’s  clear  azure  spreads  her  sacred  light, 

When  not  a  breath  disturbs  the  deep  serene, 

spirit  that  animates  his  translation,  which  is  something  like  what  one  might 
imagine  Homer  himself  would  have  writ  before  he  arriv’d  to  years  of  discretion.” 

1  Pope’s  translation  of  the  Iliad  was  published  in  1715-20.  It  is  said  that 
the  great  Bentley  (see  §  14  d  R.)  remarked  to  Pope  “that  it  was  a  very 
pretty  poem  but  that  he  must  not  call  it  Homer.”  It  is  in  such  simple  narra¬ 
tive  as  quoted  above  that  Pope’s  style  is  worst ;  it  is  best  in  descriptions  of 
action. 

Pope  says  in  his  preface :  “  That  which  in  my  opinion  ought  to  be  the 
endeavour  of  any  one  who  translates  Homer,  is  above  all  things  to  keep  alive 
that  spirit  and  fire  which  makes  his  chief  character.  In  particular  places, 
where  the  sense  can  bear  any  doubt,  to  follow  the  strongest  and  most  poetical, 
as  most  agreeing  with  that  character.  To  copy  him  in  all  the  variations  of 
his  style  and  the  different  modulations  of  his  numbers.  To  preserve  in  the 
more  active  or  more  descriptive  parts,  a  warmth  and  elevation ;  in  the  more 
sedate  or  narrative,  a  plainness  and  solemnity ;  in  the  speeches,  a  fulness  and 
perspicuity;  in  the  sentences  [ sententiae ],  a  shortness  and  gravity.  Not  to 
neglect  even  the  little  figures  and  turns  on  the  words,  nor  sometimes  the  very 
cast  of  the  periods.  Neither  to  omit  or  confound  any  rites  or  customs  of 
antiquity.  ...  To  consider  him  attentively  in  comparison  with  Virgil  above 
all  the  ancients,  and  with  Milton  above  all  the  moderns.” 


4 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  «• 


And  not  a  cloud  o’ercasts  the  solemn  scene  ; 

Around  her  throne  the  vivid  planets  roll, 

And  stars  unnumber’d  gild  the  glowing  pole, 

O’er  the  dark  trees  a  yellow  verdure  shed, 

And  tip  with  silver  every  mountain’s  head  ; 

Then  shine  the  vales,  the  rocks  in  prospect  rise, 

A  flood  of  glory  bursts  from  all  the  skies : 

The  conscious  swains,  rejoicing  in  the  sight, 

Eye  the  blue  vault  and  bless  the  useful  light. 

So  many  flames  before  proud  Ilion  blaze, 

And  lighten  glimmering  Xanthus  with  their  rays : 

The  long  reflections  of  the  distant  fires 
Gleam  on  the  walls,  and  tremble  on  the  spires, 

A  thousand  piles  the  dusky  horrors  gild, 

And  shoot  a  shady  lustre  o’er  the  field. 

Full  fifty  guards  each  flaming  pile  attend, 

Whose  umber’d  arms,  by  fits,  thick  flashes  send, 

Loud  neigh  the  coursers  o’er  the  heaps  of  corn, 

And  ardent  warriors  wait  the  rising  morn.” 

Cowper’s  translation  1  follows :  — 

“  As  when  about  the  clear  bright  moon,  the  stars 
Shine  in  full  splendour,  and  the  winds  are  hush’d, 

The  groves,  the  mountain-tops,  the  headland-heights 
Stand  all  apparent,  not  a  vapour  streaks 

1  Published  in  1791. 

Cowper  says  in  his  preface  :  “  My  chief  boast  is  that  I  have  adhered  closely 
to  the  original,  convinced  that  every  departure  from  him  would  be  punished 
with  the  forfeiture  of  some  grace  or  beauty  for  which  I  could  offer  no  sub¬ 
stitute.  ...  It  has  been  my  point  everywhere  to  be  as  little  verbose  as  possible. 
.  .  .  In  the  affair  of  style,  I  have  endeavoured  neither  to  creep  nor  to  bluster, 
for  no  author  is  so  likely  to  betray  his  translator  into  both  these  faults  as 
Homer,  though  himself  never  guilty  of  either.  .  .  .  The  passages  which  will  be 
least  noticed  .  .  .  are  those  which  have  cost  me  abundantly  the  most  labour. 
It  is  difficult  to  kill  a  sheep  with  dignity  in  a  modern  language,  to  flay  and  to 
prepare  it  for  the  table,  detailing  every  circumstance  of  the  process.  Difficult 
also,  without  sinking  below  the  level  of  poetry,  to  harness  mules  to  a  waggon, 
particularizing  every  article  of  their  furniture,  straps,  rings,  staples,  and  even 
the  tying  of  the  knots  that  kept  all  together.  Homer,  who  writes  always  to 
the  eye,  with  all  his  sublimity  and  grandeur,  has  the  minuteness  of  a  Flemish 
painter.” 


§  1,  a.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


5 


The  boundless  blue,  but  ether  open’d  wide 
All  glitters  and  the  shepherd’s  heart  is  cheer’d ; 

So  num’rous  seem’d  those  fires  between  the  stream 
Of  Xanthus,  blazing,  and  the  fleet  of  Greece, 

In  prospect  all  of  Troy  ;  a  thousand  fires,  " 

Each  watch’d  by  fifty  warriors  seated  near. 

The  steeds  beside  the  chariots  stood,  their  corn 
Chewing,  and  waiting  till  the  golden  thron’d 
Aurora  should  restore  the  light  of  da}  .” 

Professor  F.  W.  Newman’s  translation  1  follows:  — 

“  And  as  around  the  shining  Moon  |  the  stars  aloft  in  heaven 
Glister  with  radiance  distinct,  |  when  all  the  sky  is  breathless, 

And  every  lofty  peak  is  shown,  |  and  headland  edge  and  forest, 
And  from  behind  the  cloven  sky  |  unfathom’d  heaven  gleameth  ; 
Nor  hidden  any  star  may  be  ;  |  and  joyful  is  the  shepherd ; 

So  many  fires  betwixt  the  streams  |  of  Xanthos  and  the  galleys, 
Shone  then  in  front  of  Ilion,  |  by  hands  of  Troians  kindled. 

A  thousand  fires  along  the  plain,  |  I  say,  that  night  were  burning, 
And  close  to  every  glaring  blaze  |  sat  fifty  men  in  armour. 

And  by  their  chariots  the  steeds  |  rye  and  white  barley  munching, 
Stood  waiting  till  the  Queen  of  Morn  |  fair-thron’d  should  rise 
before  them.” 

Lord  Derby’s  translation  2  follows :  — 

“  As  when  in  Heav’n,  around  the  glitt’ring  moon 
The  stars  shine  bright  amid  the  breathless  air ; 

And  ev’ry  crag  and  ev’ry  jutting  peak 

1  Published  in  1856. 

This  has  received  perhaps  undue  distinction  from  the  criticisms  of  Matthew 
Arnold.  The  translator  says:  “To  the  metre  which  I  have  myself  adopted, 
I  was  brought  by  a  series  of  argument  and  experiment,  and  was  afterwards 
gratified  to  find  that  I  had  exactly  alighted  on  the  modern  Greek  Epic  metre. 
It  is  also  the  metre  of  the  American  Yankee  Doodle,  which  some  have  ignor¬ 
antly  made  an  objection:  as  if  the  metre  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice  and  of  the 
Margites,  were  not  that  of  the  Iliad.  Of  course  no  metre  can  be  popular, 
without  being  applicable  to  low  treatment ;  indeed  without  being  liable  to 
degenerate  into  doggrel  in  unskilful  hands.” 

2  Published  in  1865. 


6 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  a. 


Stands  boldly  forth,  and  ev’ry  forest  glade  ; 

Ev’n  to  the  gates  of  Heav’n  is  open’d  wide 
The  boundless  sky  ;  shines  each  particular  star 
Distinct ;  joy  fills  the  gazing  shepherd’s  heart. 

So  bright,  so  thickly  scatter’d  o’er  the  plain, 

Before  the  walls  of  Troy,  between  the  ships 
And  Xanthus’  stream,  the  Trojan  watchfires  blaz’d. 

A  thousand  fires  burnt  brightly  ;  and  round  each 
Sat  fifty  warriors  in  the  ruddy  glare  ; 

With  store  of  provender  before  them  laid, 

Barley  and  rye,  the  tether’d  horses  stood 
Beside  the  cars,  and  waited  for  the  morn.” 

Bryant’s  translation  1  follows :  — 

“  As  when  in  heaven  the  stars  look  brightly  forth 
Round  the  clear-shining  moon,  while  not  a  breeze 
Stirs  in  the  depths  of  air,  and  all  the  stars 
Are  seen,  and  gladness  fills  the  shepherd’s  heart, 

So  many  fires  in  sight  of  Ilium  blazed, 

Lit  by  the  sons  of  Troy,  between  the  ships 

And  eddying  Xanthus :  on  the  plain  there  shone 

A  thousand  ;  fifty  warriors  by  each  fire 

Sat  in  its  light.  Their  steeds  beside  the  cars  — 

Champing  their  oats  and  their  white  barley  —  stood, 

And  waited  for  the  golden  morn  to  rise.” 

Tennyson  translates :  — 

“As  when  in  heaven  the  stars  about  the  moon 
Look  beautiful,  when  all  the  winds  are  laid, 

And  every  height  comes  out,  and  jutting  peak 
And  valley,  and  the  immeasurable  heavens 
Break  open  to  their  highest,  and  all  the  stars 
Shine,  and  the  shepherd  gladdens  in  his  heart : 

So  many  a  fire  between  the  ships  and  stream 
Of  Xanthus  blazed  before  the  towers  of  Troy, 

A  thousand  on  the  plain  ;  and  close  by  each 


1  Published  in  1870. 


§  1,  c.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


7 


Sat  fifty  in  the  blaze  of  burning  fire  ; 

And  champing  golden  grain,  the  horses  stood 
Hard  by  their  chariots,  waiting  for  the  dawn.” 

Matthew  Arnold  translates  the  last  verses  in  hexameters :  — 

4 4  So  shone  forth,  in  front  of  Troy,  by  the  bed  of  the  Xanthus, 

Between  that  and  the  ships,  the  Trojans’  numerous  fires. 

In  the  plain  there  were  kindled  a  thousand  fires  :  by  each  one 

There  sat  fifty  men  in  the  ruddy  light  of  the  fire  : 

By  their  chariots  stood  the  steeds  and  champed  the  white  barley 

While  their  masters  sat  by  the  fire  and  waited  for  Morning.” 

b.  Change  of  Subject.  Homer  composed  for  quick- 
minded  hearers,  who  were  ready  to  apprehend  a  change  of 
subject  even  when  it  was  marked  by  no  pronoun,  as  rj  oi  ay 
aWoyevas  8at&a$  c fiepe  /cal  k  yaXicrra  |  hgwdwv  < pcXeecr/ce,  /cal 
erpeepe  rvrOov  iovra  a  434  f.  she  bore  for  him  the  burning 
torch  and  ( i.e .  for)  he  loved  her  most  of  all  the  female  ser¬ 
vants,  and  (i.e.  for)  she  ivas  his  nurse  when  he  was  a  child ; 
e^ev  irdCXai  Wvvev  "T  871  he  (Meriones)  long  had  been  hold¬ 
ing  while  he  (Teucer)  ivas  taking  aim  ;  irpiv  y’  ?)e  /cara/crdyev 
rje  /car  a/eprf ?  |  'IXlov  aiTreivrjv  kXeecv  KTacrOai  re  i ToXiras 
O  557  before  either  we  slay  the  Greeks  or  ‘they  capture 
lofty  Ilios  and  the  citizens  are  slain.  Still  more  striking  is 
the  change  in  (3ovXoiyr]v  /ce  .  .  reOvdyev  rj  rdbe  .  .  epf  opd- 
acrOai,  \  ^eivovs  re  crrv(peXit(oyevov^  hywds  re  yvvac/ca ?  [  pvcrrd- 
£ovras  deuceX/ws  /card  hd/yara  ucCXdi ,  |  /cal  olvov  hiacpvcrcroyevov, 
/cal  alrov  eSovras  it  106  ff.  I  should  rather  die  than  see  these 
deeds ,  —  guests  struck ,  suitors  abusing  the  maids ,  wine  wasted , 
suitors  devouring  the  food ,  where  the  poet  was  sure  that  his 
hearers  would  not  construe  pvard^ovras  and  eSovras  with 
feAou?,  but  would  supply  yvrjargpa ?  from  the  context. 

c.  Direct  Discourse.  Like  the  writers  of  Holy  Scrip¬ 
ture,  and  as  in  the  simple  style  of  ballads  and  fairy  tales  and 
the  conversation  of  children  and  uneducated  persons,  the 
Homeric  poet  avoids  the  use  of  indirect  discourse  ;  he  has  no 


8 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  d. 


long  passages  in  oratio  obliqua ,  in  the  manner  of  the  reported 
speeches  in  Caesar’s  Commentaries.  He  passes  quickly  from 
indirect  to  direct  discourse,1  as  eirel  irpo  oi  elrrogev  rjgei?  j 
gpr  clvtov  /crelvetv  g/jre  gvdacrOai  ci/coltlv,  (  e/c  y dp  ' Opecrrao 
tlctls  ecrcreTcu  /crX.  a  37  ff.  since  we  told  him  beforehand  not  to 
slay  the  man  himself  and  not  to  woo  his  wife ,  for  from  Orestes 
shall  (for  should )  vengeance  come ,  etc.  Contrast  0  yap  rfxde 
doas  67 tl  vrjas  A ycuwv  |  .  .  teal  Xlacrero  irdvras  ’A^cuou?  | 

.  .  vgiv  gev  deol  8oiev  ’OXvgi ria  8c agar  e^ovres  \  e/cirepaai 
TLpiagoio  ttoXlv,  ev  8’  ohca8 ’  i/cecrdat  *  |  irai8a  8 ’  igol  Xvaaire 
cfitX  7]v  ra  8 ’  diroiva  8eyecrdai,  |  cffogevoi  A  £09  viov,  e/cr/ftoXov 
’ ATroXXwva  A  12  ff.  with  its  paraphrase  which  uses  indirect 
discourse,  eXdcov  0  iepevs  ev^ero  e/celvois  gev  rou?  deovs  8ovvau 
eXovras  rrjv  Tpotav  avrovs  crcodrjvaL,  rgv  8e  dvyarepa  oi  Xvcrac 
8e£agevov<;  airoiva  /cal  rov  6eov  al8eadevra<^  ktX.  in  Plato  Rep. 


Ill  393  E. 

d.  Principal  Clauses.  Similar  to  this  avoidance  of 
indirect  discourse  is  the  poet’s  frequent  and  ready  transition 
from  a  subordinate  to  a  principal  clause,  as  09  gey  a  ttclvtwv  \ 

’ Apyelcov  /cpareec  /cal  oi  ireidovTai  ’A yaioi  A  78  f.  who  rules 
with  might  over  all  the  Argives  and  him  (for  whoni)  the 
Achaeans  obey ;  09  gdXa  7roWa  |  7 rXay%dr)  .  .  7 roXXa  8 ’  o  y 
iv  TrovTcp  rradev  aXyea  a  1  ff .  who  was  driven  on  many  wander¬ 
ings  .  .  and  he  suffered,  many  woes  upon  the  sea ;  M evrcop  09 
p  'Q8vcrr)o$  dgvgovos  rjev  eraipos  |  /cal  oi  (Mentor)  loov  ev  vrjv- 
crlv  errerperrev  (sc.  Odysseus)  oi/cov  airavra  (3  225  f.,  co  eiri 
7 roXXa  goyrjcra,  8oaav  8e  got  vie 9  ’A ycuchv  A  162. 

e.  Thus  the  poet  deserts  the  participial  for  a  finite  construc¬ 
tion,  as  r/R/cropa  8 ’  ev  7re8lcp  18 e  icelgevov  *  dgcfii  K  eraipoc  |  etaro 
O  9  f.  he  saw  Hector  lying  on  the  plain ,  while  his  comrades  were 


1  So  in  other  early  poets  as  utti  SrjuTe  TriirovOa,  kotti  \  s-r^vre  Ka\T)/u,  | 
kotti  fioi  fiaXiara  0eAa>  yeuiaOai  |  /j.aiv6\a  Ov/LKf  riva  Stjvtc  Ilei9u>  |  /xats  ayriu  is 
aav  <pi\6TaTa,  t is  <r  d>  \  Vaircp’  adiKyei;  Sappho  I  15  ff.  thou  didst  ask  me  what  I 
suffer  and  why  I  call  thee ,  .  .  whom  dost  thou  desire  that  Persuasion  should  lead 
to  thy  love,  etc. 


§  1,  h.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


9 


seated  around  him  (for  kcli  eraipov 9  gyevovs:)  /  gvyarrjpe^  rjye- 
pedovro  |  ea6X  dyopevovres,  icaica  Se  (f>pe(rl  /3vcr<ToS6yevov  p  65  f. 
(for  ftvcro-o&opLevovTes  planning  in  the  depth  of  their  hearts'). 
Of.  yowd^oyat  .  .  |  kardyevai  /cparepcos,  gySi  rpwnrdaOe  (j)6- 
(3ov$e  O  665  f.  I  beseech  you  to  stand  stoutly ,  nor  turn  to  flight ; 
loiaiv  re  TLTverKogevoi  \deaai  r  efiaWov  F  80,  where  re .  .  re 
mark  the  imperfect  as  correlative  with  the  participle. 

f.  Order  of  Words.  The  simplicity  of  the  Homeric 
order  of  words  is  most  clearly  seen  by  comparing  a  passage 
of  Homer  with  a  similar  passage  of  a  later  Greek  poet  or  of 
Yergil.  Many  verses  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  can  be  trans¬ 
lated  into  English,  word  for  word  as  they  stand,  as  p^oyeO' 
€?  (drjfirjv  ieprjv  nroXuv  ’H erlcovos,  |  rrjv  Se  hienrpdOoyev  re  teal 
ijyoyev  evdaSe  nrdvra.  |  .  .  e/c  5’  eXov  ’A rpelhg  ^pvcrgiSa  /caWi- 
irdpgov  kt\.  A  866  ff.  When  the  order  differs  essentially 
from  the  English  there  are  generally  rhetorical  or  poetical 
reasons  why  the  order  is  what  it  is ;  no  one  should  suppose 
that  the  metre  compelled  the  poet  to  adopt  an  arrangement 
of  words'  that  was  not  natural  and  did  not  please  him.  The 
verse  gave  prominence  not  merely  to  the  first  word  but  often 
to  the  word  before  the  principal  caesural  pause  (§  40). 

g.  The  thought  of  each  Homeric  verse  is  somewhat  more 
independent  than  is  the  case  in  later  poetry.  Other  things 
being  equal,  a  word  should  be  construed  with  words  in  the 
same  rather  than  in  another  verse.  Rarely  does  a  descriptive 
adjective  at  the  close  of  one  verse  agree  directly  with  a  noun 
at  the  beginning  of  the  next  (as  ^pegen^ov  in r  cucpp  |  yetXet 
i^eerrabre^  M  51  f.  or  eCXero  KaXgv  |  d^Lvrjv  ev^aXfcov  N  611). 

h.  A  noun  at  the  close  of  one  verse  often  has  an  adjective 
apparently  in  agreement  with  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  next 
verse,  but  this  adjective  may  be -regarded  as  in  apposition 
with  the  noun ;  it  frequently  serves  to  form  a  closer  connec¬ 
tion  with  a  following  amplifying  clause,  as  ggvbv  aethe  6ed  .  .  | 
ovXoyevr] v,  r)  gvpi  ’A yaiois  cCKye  eOrjicev  A  1  f.,  where  the  rela¬ 
tive  clause  explains  ovXogivrjv :  the  wrath  was  mortal ,  deadly , 


10 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1, 


because  it  brought  ten  thousand  woes  upon  the  Achaeans. 
So  a  few  verses  later,  vovcrov  dva  arparov  copcre  /ca/cyv,  oXe/covro 
Be  Xaoi  A  10,  the  position  of  the  adjective  /ca/cyv  is  explained 
by  its  connection  with  the  thought  of  the  following  clause. 
Cf.  vyrrioL  oi  /car cl  /3ovs  'TirepLovos  yeXioio  \  rjaOiov  a  8,  the 
companions  of  Odysseus  were  fools  in  that  they  devoured  the 
cattle  of  Hyperion ;  cpdrLs  .  .  |  ecrOXy,  ^aipovcnv  Be  rraryp  teal 
irorvca  pyryp  f  80 ;  vvv  avre  pcv  vies  '  A^cllcov  |  ev  iraXdpys 
cfropeovcn  BucaaTroXoL  oi  re  Oepucrras  |  7 rpos  A  los  elpvarai 
A  237  ff.,  where  BucaairoXoi  is  explained  by  the  following 
clause.  Sometimes  a  word  is  reserved  for  the  beginning  of  a 
verse  in  order  to  mark  a  contrast  with  what  follows,  as  avrdp 
eirel  By  rectos  errecravpevovs  evoyaev  ]  T pcbas,  dr  dp  A avacov 
yevero  ia%y  re  cf)6/3os  re  O  395  f.,  where  the  order  of  the 
words  sets  T pcbas  into  an  antithesis  with  A avacov,  —  dpcj)ore- 
pas  .  .  % elpas  epaprrrev  \  a/cacf),  Be^irepy  8’  ap  dir  copcov  aXvvro 
to  fa  <f>  489  f.  avrov  thus  often  contrasts  a  man  with  his 
companions  or  possessions,  as  diro  pev  cf>iXa  eipara  Bvaco  \ 
avrov  Be  /cXaiovra  6oas  errl  vyas  dcf>yaco  B  261  ff. ;  ey %os  pev  p 
ecrrycre  .  .  |  avryv  8’  es  Opovov  elcrev  a  127  ff. 

i.  The  first  words  of  successive  verses  occasionally  carry 
the  burden  of  thought,  as  HVaO/co?  . .  |  T cj>ivoov  /3dXe  . .  |  Aefta- 
Byv . .  |  cbpov  H  13  ff.  Glaucus  .  .  hit  Iphinous  .  .  son  of  Dexias 
on  the  shoulder. 

j.  The  subject  of  the  sentence  usually  precedes  its  verb. 
Almost  every  exception  to  this  remark  is  found  either  at  the 
close  of  the  verse,  or  less  frequently  before  the  principal 
caesura  (where  the  same  metrical  freedom  was  allowed  as  at 
the  end  of  the  verse,  §  41  a  3). 

k.  In  order  to  give  prominence  to  an  important  word,  it  is 
sometimes  placed  before  the  relative  word  of  the  clause  to 
which  it  belongs,  as  cracorepos  cos  tee  veyac  A  32 ;  icelSc  Be  pi 
cos  7 repdcrece  f  297.  This  is  especially  frequent  when  the  sub¬ 
ordinate  clause  precedes  the  principal  sentence,  as"E /crcop  B ’ 
cos  —tcaids  re  irvXas  .  .  i/cavev  \  dp<\>  apa  pev  .  .  deov  /crX.  Z  237. 


§  b  P-] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


11 


l.  Adnominal  genitives,  like  adjectives,  generally  precede 
their  noun,  except  at  the  close  of  the  verse  or  before  a  caesu- 
ral  pause,  but  there  are  many  exceptions  to  the  rule  in  the 
case  of  adjectives,  principally  perhaps  where  the  adjective 
and  substantive  are  closely  connected.  A  preposition  often 
stands  between  the  adjective  and  noun,  as  ^pvcrep  dva  a/cf 
7 rrpcp  A  15,  Ooas  eVt  vr/as  A  12 ;  jjpierepfp  evl  oc/c(p  A  30 ;  or 
vija ?  67 tl  7 Xacfrvpa?  T  119.  The  infinitive  generally  follows 
the  verb  on  which  it  depends. 

m.  When  a  noun  is  modified  by  two  adjectives,  it  fre¬ 
quently  is  preceded  by  one  and  followed  by  the  other,  as  6ofj 
irapa  vrjl  pLeXaivy  A  300  ;  rroXvv  opi/3pov  dOeafarov  K  6.  So 
in  English  poetry  “human  face  divine,”  “purest  ray  serene,” 
“old  man  eloquent.” 

n.  Epithets.  Often  three  or  more  epithets  are  used  with 
one  noun,  as  etXero  5’  aXtcipiov  £7^09  d/ca^puevov  o£ei  yaXKp,  \ 
fipoOv  pueya  arifiapov  a  99  f. ;  ov  tl  TrepLTrXrjOps  Xcrjv  rocrov, 
dXX'  dyaOy  puev,  |  €v/3oto<;  617x77X09,  olvoTrXpdys  iroXvirvpo 9 
o  405  f.  (But  in  the  first  three  books  of  the  Iliad  as  many 
as  three  adjectives  are  rarely  found  with  one  noun.)  Often 
two  of  the  epithets  begin  a  verse,  as  e’9  Opovov  elaev  aywr  .  .  | 
KaXov  ScuSdXeov  a  130  f. ;  (poppuyyi  Xiyelrj  |  /caXf)  SaiSaXey 
I  186  f. ;  /caXa  TreScXa  |  dpL/3p6cria  % pvcreca  e  44  f. ;  e’9  OdXa- 
piov  /caT6/3rjcr€TO  Krjdoevra  |  icehpivov  vyjropocjiov  XI  191  f. 

o.  As  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  examples,  the  poet  does 
not  use  kcll  to  connect  epitheta  ornantia. 

p.  These  ornamental  epithets  frequently  have  reference  to 
the  most  marked  natural  characteristics  of  an  object  rather 
than  to  a  particular  occasion.  The  ships  are  swift  (Ooal') 
even  when  they  are  drawn  up  on  land  (A  300  and  passim ) ; 
clothing  is  aiyaXoevra  even  when  it  is  soiled  (f  26) ;  Aegis- 
thus  is  called  honorable ,  blameless  ( dpuvpLcov ,  a  29)  in  the  very 
breath  in  which  he  is  rebuked  for  wooing  Agamemnon’s  wife 
and  killing  the  king  of  men  himself;  Polyphemus  lifts  his 
hands  to  the  starry  heaven  (ex9  ovpavov  darepoevra  t  527)  in 


12 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  ?. 


broad  daylight.  The  sea  is  7roXu<£\otcr/3o?,  rj^rjeaaa,  evpvTropos, 
drpvyeros,  a6ecrcf)aTOs,  iroXu j,  yXavKrj.  Rarely  would  one  of 
these  epithets  be  used  to  give  a  characteristic  of  the  sea  at  a 
special  time.  It  is  in  imitation  of  Homer  that  Theocritus, 
Id.  I  58,  calls  milk  Xevtcov ,  —  of  course,  not  to  distinguish 
white  milk  from  milk  of  another  color  but  to  bring  the  object 
vividly  before  the  mind  by  mentioning  a  quality  of  it  which 
all  would  recognize  as  belonging  to  the  nature  of  the  object. 
The  choice  among  these  stereotyped  conventional  epithets 
was  often  determined  by  the  convenience  of  metre  or  rhythm 
(see  §  4  b  f.).  It  should  be  noted  that  of  the  epithets  of  the 
sea  only  two  (aTpuyeTo?,  evpviropol)  have  the  same  metrical 
value. 

q.  Almost  every  prominent  person  in  the  poems  has  some 
special  epithet  or  epithets.  Pope  calls  these  “a  sort  of 
supernumerary  pictures  of  the  persons  or  things  they  are 
joined  to.  We  see  the  motion  of  Hector’s  plumes  in  the 
epithet  /copvOaioXos.”  No  one  but  Athena  is  yXav/cob7u<>  and 
the  adjective  becomes  virtually  a  proper  name,  as  y  135. 
She  bears  this  epithet  90  times,  generally  in  the  phrase  Sea 
yXavKOdirLs  'AOijvr].  She  is  ’A 6i)vr\  41  times.  Zeus 

is  ve^eXrjyepera  Zeu?  30  times,  ipLy&ov7ro<;  Trocns  r/Hpr]<;  T  times, 
evpvorra  Zevs  20  times,  pLrjrieTa  Zed?  19  times,  atytoyo?  (gen¬ 
erally  in  the  genitive,  alyto^oio^)  54  times,  7 rarrjp  dvhptov  re 
6e mv  t€  15  times.  Poseidon  is  yatpoyo?  ivvocriycuos  8  times, 
Hoaeihdwv  ivoat^Ocov  24  times.  Hera  with  a  few  mortal 
women  shares  the  by-name  XevfcdXevos  (24  times,  generally 
in  the  phrase  6ea  XevKooXevos  r/H and  she  is  fioooTris  iroTvia 
r/Hp?7 14  times.  The  Achaeans  are  ivtcvrjpuhe^  ’A ycuoi  36  times, 
Kcipr)  Kopbowvre 9  29  times,  in  the  genitive  ’A ycuwv  yaXKo^irdivwv 
24  times,  2 Ae?  ’A ^cawy  64  times,  Xao?  ’A ^cumv  22  times,  Kovpot 
’A xcllcov  9  times.  Agamemnon  is  aval;  dvhpwv  forty-five  times 
in  the  Iliad  and  thrice  in  the  Odyssey,  while  this  title  is  given 
to  only  five  other  chiefs,  once  to  each.  Achilles  is  Tro&dp/crjs 
’A^AAeu?  21  times,  7ro&z9  co/ciA  ’A^fiVAezA  30  times, 


§  1,  <.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


13 


7 ro&co/eeo?  A la/clBao  10  times,  iroBoo/cea  II rjXelcova  10  times. 
Odysseus  is  7ro\urXa?  'OBvaaevs  42  times,  iroXvgr)TL<; 
'OBvcrcreu^  78  times,  O Bvcrarjo^  Oeloco  27  times,  AaepTidBew 
'OBvcrr/os  11  times,  iroXv  gg^ap'  O Bvcrcrev  24  times.  Iris,  the 
messenger  of  the  gods  in  the  Iliad,  is  i roBgpegos  co/cea  T  pts 
9  times.  Hector  is  /copvOaioXo ?  37  times,  (fialBigos  r/E /crop 
30  times.  Of.  ‘plus  Aeneas,'  ‘fetus  Achates' 

r.  The  situation  of  the  moment  seems  sometimes  to  con¬ 
tradict  the  epithet,  as  top  Be  IBcop  plygcre  (3ogp  dyado?  A toggBg^; 
E  596  at  sight  of  him  Diomed  good  at  the  war  cry  shuddered. 

s.  Synonymous  Expressions.  The  poet  is  fond  of  a 
cumulation  of  synonymous  or  nearly  synonymous  expres¬ 
sions,  many  of  which  remind  the  reader  of  redundant  legal 
expressions,  as  efreor/jeras'  Trpoar/vBa  A  201  lifted  up  his  voice 
and  addressed  her ;  eVo?  r  ecf)aT  etc  t  opoga^ep  A  361  spoke 
a  word  and  called  upon  him ;  egev  £eoi nos  /cal  eirl  %6ovl 
Bep/cogepoio  A  88  ;  airpidTgp  dvdiroivov  A  99,  tmp  ov  tl  gera- 
rpeirg  ovB ’  dAeyl^ei?  A  160,  i roXegoi  re  gdyat  re  A  177,  tcclptwp 
gep  /cpareeLp  eOeXec  irdpTecrcn  B ’  dpdaaeip,  |  ttclctl  Be  crggaipeip 
A  288  f.,  ovt  eipogai  ovre  geraXXw  A  553,  o\Jreac  et  k  eOeXycrOa 
/cal  el'  /cep  rot  ra  gegr/Xg  A  353,  / )yr)Topes  rjBe  geBopres  B  79, 
a/3pogoc  aviayoi  N  41,  oX/3w  re  ttXovtw  re  II  536,  cuctto? 
clttvcttos  a  242,  pgrrepOes  r  ayffXop  re  B  221,  dpprj/cTOVs  oXvtovs 
6  275.  Sometimes  the  same  stem  is  repeated  for  emphasis, 
in  a  different  form,  as  oyjngop  o'^nreXeaTop  B  325,  /cetTo  geya< ? 
geyaXcocrTL  X  26,  diroiXero  Xvypcp  oXedpp  y  87. 

t.  Epexeg-esis.  A  clause  is  often  added  epexegetically, 
to  explain  a  preceding  clause  or  word,  as  pggeprea  ftovXgp,  \ 
poo-top  ’O Bvcrcrfjo^  TaXacrffpopos,  co?  /ce  per/Tac  a  86  f.,  where 
poo-top  is  in  apposition  with  fiovXgp  and  is  itself  explained 
by  w?  /ce  perjTac,  —  iraTpotyopga  .  .  6  oi  iraTepa  kXvtop  e/cTa 
a  299  f.  ;  ggpLp  .  .  ovXogepgp  rj  gvpO  ’ Kyaiois  aX ye  €07) /cep 
A  1  f . ;  reT^o?  apeiop  o  /c  dpBpdai  Xoiyop  dgvpai  O  736  a  better 
wall  (namely,  one)  which  would  ivard  off  destruction  from  the 
men  ;  yiypogepw  .  .  ore  gep  T6/ce  gyrgg  rj  198;  tcl  t€  Bcop'  'Afpo- 


14 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  1,  «. 


Slrgs,  |  g  re  KOfirj  to  re  elSo ?  T  54  f. ;  aperrjv  crgr  (pacrepcer  g 
roi  oirgSei  6  237  ;  el  pier  Sg  rvr  rovro  <pl\or  fiarcdpecrcn  6eoc- 
cnv,  |  voaryjaai  'OSvcrga  7ro\v<ppora  orSe  SopoorSe  kt\.  a  82. 
For  explanatory  asyndeton,  see  §  2  m. 

u.  The  species  often  follows  in  apposition  with  the  genus, 
as  tcvpiCLT a  pLcucpa  daXdaag^  |  ttovtov  'lfcaploio  B  144  f. ;  'tpg^  | 
Kipicos  ^  86  f. ;  /3o0?  |  Tavpos  B  480  f. ;  crno?  Kairpov  P  21;  opm- 
cnr  alyvirioionr  II  59.  Of.  e/crodev  aWcor  |  grgaTgponr  a  132  f. 
apart  from  the  others ,  the  suitors ,  and  the  epexegetical  use  of 
the  infinitive,  as  epiSi  £ vregtce  pidyeaQai  A  8  brought  together 
in  strife ,  to  contend. 

v.  Thus  also  the  part  of  the  mind  or  body  which  is  em¬ 
ployed  or  especially  affected  is  mentioned,  as  ov/c  'Ay agegrom 
grSare  6vgd>  A  24,  yeoo/xez'o?  fcrjp  A  44,  tceyapoiaro  dvgp  A  256, 
ev  ocpdaXgoicur  opacrOai  F  306,  iroal  7 Tpo(3i(3ds  N  158,  Trader 
aXyea  or  Kara  Ovgor  a  4. 

w.  Stereotyped  Expressions.  The  same  expressions 
recur  under  similar  circumstances.  We  find  a  stereotyped 
description  of  a  feast  and  of  the  preparations  for  it,  of  the 
breaking  of  day  and  of  the  approach  of  night,  of  doffing  or 
donning  sandals  and  armor ;  there  are  conventional  expressions 
for  setting  out  on  a  journey,  for  an  attack  in  battle,  for  the  fall 
and  death  of  a  warrior,  for  lying  down  to  rest.  Speeches  are 
introduced  and  followed  by  set  verses,  as  teal  pur  (or  o-^ea?) 
(poor  era?  eirea  Trrepoerra  irpocrgvSa  A  201,  and  in  fifty  other 
places;  6  crcpcr  ev  (pporeoor  dyopgaaTo  teal  geTeenrer  A  73  and 
in  fourteen  other  places,  while  the  second  hemistich  is  found 
several  times  in  other  combinations ;  g  tol  b  y  eliroor  tear 
dp'  e^ero,  tolctl  S'  drearg  A  68,  101,  B  76,  H  354,  365,  /3  224. 
These  stereotyped  verses  have  been  compared  with  the  fre¬ 
quently  recurring  “And  Job  answered  and  said,”  “Then 
Eliphaz  the  Temanite  answered  and  said,"  of  the  book  of 
Job,  and  with  the  set  form  in  which  the  reports  of  the  mes¬ 
sengers  were  brought  to  the  man  of  Uz,  —  each  of  the  four 
reports  ending  “and  I  only  am  escaped  alone  to  tell  thee.” 


§  2,  c.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


15 


§  2.  a.  Parechesis,  Onomatopoeia,  etc.  The  poet  seems 
to  have  looked  with  indifference  on  the  similarity  of  sound 
in  neighboring  words.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  designed 
the  rhyme  in  l/cecrOac,  Se^eadac  A  19  f.,  Scocrec,  drrdxjec  A  96  f., 
yeouca,  re/covaa  A  413  f.,  epvcrcrav,  rdvvcraav  A  485  f.,  or  in 
instances  like  H  9  ff.,  where  three  successive  verses  rhyme, 
ending  eolo,  irnroSapcoco,  eolo ,  or  between  the  two  liemistichs 
of  a  verse,  as  eairere  vvv  /jlol  M ovacu  'OXypcirca  Scbpcar  eyoo- 
acu  B  484. 

Most  examples  of  parechesis  (7rap??y?7crt?)  and  alliteration 
are  probably  accidental,  as  iroXXewv  etc  n toXccov  B  131,  e’?  iroXe- 
pcov  7 rcoXpaeac  E  350,  /celvos  ye  eoucorc  rcelrac  a  46,  apccf)'  O Svar/t 
Sacfypovc  Saierac  rjrop  a  48,  Saacrdpcevoc  Sacvvvr  epucvSea  Sacra 
y  66,  7 rarpi  re  crc 3  pceya  rrrjpca  'ttoXtjc  re  rravrc  re  Srjpcw  T  50. 

b.  Occasionally  an  onomatopoetic  ( ovopcarorrocca ),  imitative 

expression  is  used,  giving  a  kind  of  echo  in  the  sound,  as 
rpcyQd  re  real  rerpayOd  T  363,  of  the  breaking  of  the  sword 
of  Menelaus  ;  i roXXd  S'  dvavra  icdravra  rrdpavrd  re  So^pud 
r  r/X0ov  'E  116,  of  the  men  and  mules  going  up  hill  and 
down,  over  a  rough  road  for  wood ;  etc  Se  XpocryU  /3rj 

rrovroTcopoco  A  439,  where  a  vivid  imagination  may  perhaps 
hear  the  measured  steps  of  the  damsel  as  she  leaves  the  ship, 
with  a  quick  rush  at  the  close;  tcvpcara  rra^Xd^ovra  rroXv- 
(f)Xoco-/3oio  6aXd<rcrr)<i  N  798;  avres  errecra  rreSovSe  KvXcvSero 
Aaa?  dvacSr) ?  X  598,  of  the  rolling  back  of  the  stone  which 
Sisyphus  in  Hades  was  continually  urging  to  the  summit  of 
a  hill. 

c.  The  poet  plays  occasionally  on  the  names  of  his  heroes, 
as  npodoo?  0oo?  pyepcovevev  B  758  (“swift  by  nature  as  well  as 
by  name  ”)  ;  TA??7ro\e;uoi'  .  •  •  rXppcova  Ovpcov  eywv  E  668  ff. ; 
Eo7re/0et  rrecOovro  w  465  f. ;  r/E /crop  .  .  <£%  rrov  arep  Xacbv  1 rc- 
Xcv  e^epcev  E  472  f.,  and  eye?  S'  dAoyoo?  fceSvds  /cal  vr\ma  re/a  a 
fl  730  (Andromache  is  grieving  for  her  dead  husband),  where 
e^epcev  and  eye?  seem  to  be  selected  with  reference  to  the 
assumed  etymology  of  ''TL/crcop.  Possibly  there  is  a  play  on 


16 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  2,  d. 


the  name  of  Odysseus  in  ov  vv  r  'OSvaaevs  .  .  tl  vv  ol  roaov 
wSvaao  Zev  a  60  ff. ;  his  name  is  explained  (with  doubtless 
incorrect  etymology)  where  his  grandfather  bestows  it  upon 
him,  oovcrorafjLevos  too  i/cavco  .  .  r co  o  Uoiureuv  ovofi  ecrrco  eirco - 
vvfiov  r  407  ff. ;  cf.  oSvaavro  yap  avrcp  (Odysseus)  |  Zeu?  re 
/cal  ’HeXto?  t  275  f.,  coSe  YlocrecSdcov  evocrlyfwv  \  dtSvaar  e/cird- 
yXws  e  339  f. 

cl.  The  trick  is  well  known  which  Odysseus  played  on 
Polyphemus  by  assuming  the  name  Ovn^  c  366,  408 ;  cf. 
the  pun  on  purj  rt?  and  pirjTts,  l  410,  414 :  el  puev  5)  pu)  to?  ae 
ficd^erac  .  .  ipiov  5’  eyeXacrcre  cfrlXov  /cr/p  |  &><?  ovopu  e^a7Tdrrjcrev 
ipiov  /cal  yuTJrt?  dpivpLccv.  Another  celebrated  passage  is  con¬ 
cerning  the  ivory  and  horn  gates  of  the  dreams :  o'l  puev  [oWt- 
pod\  /c  eXdcocn  Bid  irpLGTOv  eXe<fiavro< ?,  |  ol  p  eXec^alpovraL,  .  . 


r/  o  >/ 


OL  Se  Sea  ^earcov  /cepacov  eXdcocn  Ovpa^e,  |  ol  p  ervpca  /cpaivovcn 
r  564  ff.  But  it  is  improbable  that  the  similarity  of  sound  is 
intentional  in  e^ero  (Helen)  S’  ev  /cXio-pccp,  viro  Se  Opyws  iroalv 
( for  the  fee t)  rjev.  |  avri/ca  S'  rj  y  eireeaaL  irocnv  ( husband ) 
epeeivey  e/caara  S  136  f.,  or  Xe/cro  ( counted )  S'  dpiOpiov  .  .  eireira 
Se  Xe/cro  ( lay  down)  /cal  avros  S  451,  453. 


e.  Comparisons.  A  notable  characteristic  of  Homeric 
style  is  the  comparison.  This  is  designed  to  throw  into  high 
relief  some  point  in  the  action  narrated ;  it  often  relieves 
the  monotony  of  the  description  of  a  battle.  But  the  poet 
is  not  always  satisfied  to  illustrate  the  particular  point  for 
which  the  comparison  is  introduced ;  he  often  completes  the 
picture  by  adding  touches  which  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  narrative,  and  is  sometimes  drawn  on  to  add  a  new  point 
of  comparison,  as  N  492  ff.  There  the  Trojans  are  described 
as  following  their  leader,  as  sheep  follow  their  bell-wether. 
This  scene  is  completed  by  adding  to  the  original  com¬ 
parison  the  thought  of  the  joy  in  the  shepherd’s  heart  as 
he  watches  his  orderly  flock,  and  this  suggests  the  second 
comparison :  “  So  Aeneas  rejoiced  at  seeing  the  soldiers  fol¬ 
low  him.” 


§  2,  h.-] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


17 


f.  Illustrations  are  furnished  by  all  experiences  of  life,  from 
the  lightning  of  Zeus  and  the  conflict  of  opposing  winds, 
from  the  snow-storm  and  the  mountain  torrent,  to  a  child 
playing  with  the  sand  on  the  seashore,  and  a  little  girl  cling¬ 
ing  to  her  mother’s  gown ;  from  lions  and  eagles,  to  a  stub¬ 
born  ass  which  refuses  to  be  driven  from  a  cornfield  by  chil¬ 
dren,  and  to  a  greedy  fly ;  from  the  evening  star  to  women 
wrangling  in  the  street.  The  lion  is  a  special  favorite,  and 
appears  in  comparisons  thirty  times  in  the  Iliad.  The  Iliad 
has  but  few  illustrations  drawn  from  the  actions  of  men,  such 
as  weaving  (T  760  ff.),  tanning  (P  389  ft.),  or  the  grief  of  a 
father  for  his  dead  son  ('T  222  ff.,  cf.  the  delight  of  children 
at  their  father’s  recovery  from  wasting  disease,  e  394  ff.)  ; 
and  but  one  from  the  operations  of  the  mind  (O  80  ff.), 
where  a  traveler  thinks  of  different  places  in  rapid  suc¬ 
cession. 

g.  Homer,  like  Milton,  could  not  think  of  an  army  in 
motion  without  thinking  of  its  resemblance  to  something 
else.  Just  before  the  Catalogue  of  the  Ships,  the  movements 
of  the  Achaean  armies  are  described  by  six  detailed  com¬ 
parisons,  B  455-483 :  the  brightness  of  their  armor  is  com¬ 
pared  with  the  gleam  of  fire  upon  the  mountains ;  their  noisy 
tumult,  with  the  clamor  of  cranes  or  swans  on  the  Asian 
plain ;  in  multitude,  they  are  as  the  innumerable  leaves  and 
flowers  of  spring-time;  they  are  impetuous  and  bold  as  the 
eager  flies  around  the  farm  buildings ;  they  are  marshalled 
by  their  leaders  as  flocks  of  goats  by  their  herds;  their 
leader  (Agamemnon)  is  like  to  Zeus,  to  Ares,  to  Poseidon, 
—  he  is  preeminent  among  the  heroes  as  a  bull  in  a  herd  of 
cattle. 

h.  The  Iliad  has  182  detailed  comparisons,  17  briefer  (as 
ircucrlv  eoucores  rjyopaaaOe  \  vrj'Kidyoi^  049  ov  tl  fieKei  TroXe/jLijui 
epya  B  337  f.),  and  28  of  the  briefest  sort;  the  Odyssey  has 
39  detailed  comparisons,  6  briefer,  and  13  very  brief.  The 
first  book  of  the  Iliad  has  only  two  comparisons,  and  those 


18 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  2,  i. 


of  the  briefest,  6  8'  rjte  vv/ctI  eoircws  A  47,  rjvr  A  359. 

All  the  other  books  of  the  Iliad  contain  detailed  compari¬ 
sons  ;  II  and  P  have  20  each,  N  and  O  have  15  each,  A  has  14. 

i.  In  comparisons,  the  poet  sometimes  makes  reference  to 
customs  that  do  not  seem  to  have  prevailed  in  the  siege  of 
Troy:  to  riding  on  horseback  (O  679),  to  the  use  of  a  kettle 
for  boiling  meat  (4>  362),  to  the  use  of  the  trumpet  in  war 
(2  219).  This  seems  to  imply  a  consciousness  of  change  of 
customs  between  heroic  and  Homeric  times. 

j.  Comparisons  are  introduced  by  co?  re,  &>?  el,  ci>?  ore, 


irep  ktX. 

Praepositive  &>?  is  not  used  in  comparisons.  In  the  briefest 
comparisons,  postpositive  is  often  used,  generally  length¬ 
ening  the  preceding  syllable  (§§  12  l ,  41m). 

k.  The  aorist  indicative  (the  so-called  Gnomic  aorist)  is 
often  used  in  comparisons.  The  imperfect  is  found  but 
twice  (O  274,  <f>  495). 

l.  Asyndeton.  In  the  Homeric  period  more  frequently 
than  in  later  Greek,  sentences  were  left  unconnected  by 
conjunctions,  i.e.  asyndeton  (H.  1039)  was  allowed  more 
freely.  It  has  been  noticed  above  that  ornamental  epithets 
are  not  connected  by  /caf,  and  sometimes  in  animated  dis¬ 
course  the  poet  uses  no  conjunction  between  clauses  or 
words,  as  dirpcaryv  dvdirocvov  A  99. 

m.  Asyndeton  of  sentences  is  most  frequent  where  the 
second  sentence  explains  the  first  and  is  in  a  kind  of  apposi¬ 
tion  with  it,  repeating  the  thought  in  a  different  form :  dXXa 
/cal  a)?  ideXw  Sopcevac  irdXiv  el  to  y  dpceivov  •  |  /3ovXo/.i  eyco 
Xaov  abov  e/JLfievcu  rj  diroXeaOac  A  116  f.,  &>  ttottol ,  rj  pueya  irev- 
do?  'A^aUSa  yalav  l/cdvei'  |  rj  /cev  yr)6r)<rcu  Ylplapios  YlptdpiOio 
re  7 raiSes  A  254  f.,  aAA,’  oS'  dvrjp  eOeXec  i re  pi  irdvrcov  epbpbevai 
aXXcov,  J  irdvrwv  pcev  /cpareeiv  eOeXec  irdvrecrcn  S'  dvdcrcreiv 
A  287  f.  In  B  299,  rXrjre  cfrlXoi  /cal  pceivar'  errl  yjpovov  gives 
the  sum  of  the  preceding  sentence,  and  the  asyndeton  marks 
the  speaker’s  warmth  of  feeling.  Thus  the  second  sentence 


§  2,  o.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


19 


may  express  the  result  of  the  former,  as  %elve  kclkws  dvSpdrv 
ro^d^eac  •  (therefore)  ov/cer  dedXcov  \  aXXcov  dvridcreis  %  27  f. 
An  adversative  relation  is  occasionally  expressed  by  asynde¬ 
ton,  especially  with  ye  phev  in  the  second  clause,  as  B  703, 
E  516,  H  642. 

n.  The  absence  of  a  conjunction  often  gives  rapidity  to 

the  stvle  and  thus  is  found  often  where  the  second  sentence 

%/ 

begins  with  avrUa  or  alyfra,  as  el  S'  aye  phyv  TreLpTjcrcu  .  .  al\jrd 
roc  alpha  fceXaivov  epcoijaet  7 repl  Sovpi  A  302  f.,  avrl/ca  /cepro- 
phLOLcrL  A  la  YLpovhoova  rrpoarjvSa  A  539,  cf.  B  442.  For  the 
tone  of  rapidity  thus  given  to  a  narration,  cf.  Soviryaev  Se 
ireadv,  dpdfBrjae  Se  rev%e  iir  avrar  •  ]  ac/iarh  ol  Sevovro  rcophai 
KT X.  P  50  f. 

Conjunctions  are  often  omitted  in  excitement,  as  when 
Achilles  sees  the  dame  flickering  among  the  ships  of  the 
Achaeans  and  calls  to  Patroclus  opcreo  Scoyeves  Tlarpo/cXeis 
.  .  |  Xevcraw  Sr]  irapa  vrjval  irvpo^  Sr/hoco  Icorjv  *  |  phi )  Srj  vr)a$ 
eXwcri  .  .  |  Svaeo  revyea  Sacraov  II  126  ff. 

o.  Chiasmus.1  For  emphasis,  the  poet  sometimes  so  ar¬ 

ranges  the  words  of  two  clauses  that  the  extremes,  as  also  the 
means,  are  correlative  with  or  are  contrasted  with  each  other, 
as  7 ralSd  re  crol  dyephev,  Qoiftcp  6'  leprjv  e/car6ph/3r]v  A  443, 
where  rralSa  and  eKar6ph(3r]v,  crol  and  respectively  are 

contrasted.  Cf.  &)?  'A^yCXya  |  rtphycrr ;?  oXeays  Se  7roXea?  A 
558  f.,  SvcrphevecrLv  phev  ydppha,  /cary^ehyv  Se  crol  avra)  T  51,  apv  , 
erepov  Xev/cov,  ereprjv  Se  pheXaivav ,  [  T?}  re  teal  ’HeXtm  T  103  f., 
where  the  black  lamb  was  for  T?;  and  the  white  for  ’HeXto?, 
—  ftacnXevs  r  dyaOos  teparepos  r  alyphr/rr]^  F  179,  where  the 
adjectives  are  brought  together ;  avrov  r  Icryavdacncov  epyrv- 


1  The  name  is  given  from  the  Greek  letter  X,  there  being  a  crossing  of 

ideas  as  Q  _ ,  /  ’  >  Q/ 

paai\cvs  t  ayauos 

Kparepos  ■P'  alxP-VTVS  T  179. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  this  chiastic  arrangement  is  often  the  most  simple 
and  natural,  as  in  the  first  example  above,  where  aoi  at  once  suggests  the 
other  person  interested,  4>oo8oy. 


20 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  2>  P* 


ovro  re  \aov  O  723.  Of.  Milton’s  “Sweet  is  the  breath  of 
morn,  her  rising  sweet,”  Par.  Lost  IV  641,  “  Adam  the  good¬ 
liest  man  of  men  since  born  His  sons,  the  fairest  of  her 
daughters  Eve,”  Par.  Lost  IV  323  f. 

p.  Epanalepsis.  Sometimes  a  word  (generally  a  proper 

name)  or  a  clause  is  repeated  in  the  same  sentence  at  the 
beginning  of  a  new  verse,  as  a\X  6  gev  AW  loir  as  geretclaOe 
rrjXoO'  eovras,  |  AWlorras  rol  Sebalarac  /cr\.  a  22  f.  (the 

only  example  in  the  Odyssey) ;  tw  8’  eyco  dvrio ?  elgt  /cal  el 
rrvpl  ^elpas  eoucev,  |  el  irvpl  ^elpas  eoitce,  gevos  8’  aWoovi  cnBgpp 
T  371  f.  but  I  ivill  go  to  meet  him  even  if  his  hands  are  like  to 
fire ,  if  his  hands  are  like  to  fire  and  his  might  is  like  to  bright 
iron ;  ov  gev  i rw?  vvv  ecrnv  .  .  |  rep  oapifegevat  a  re  irapOevos 
gWeos  re,  |  irapOevos  7)  Weos  r.  oapi^erov  dWrfKouv  X  126  ff. 
it  is  in  no  way  possible  now  to  chat  with  him  as  a  maiden  and 
a  young  man,  a  maiden  and  a  young  man  chat  together.  Of. 
Milton’s  Lycidas  37  f.  “But  0  the  heavy  change,  now  thou 
art  gone,  Now  thou  art  gone  and  never  must  return.”  The 
name  is  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  three  successive  verses 
(N cpevs  .  .  N cpevs  .  .  N /pecs')  B  671  ff.  Of.  also  B  838,  850, 
871,  Z  154,  H  138,  M  96,  86, 158,  T  642.  The  name  when 

repeated  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  following  relative 
pronoun  in  ’A vhpogdyg,  Ovydrgp  geyaXyropos  ’Aericovos,  |  He- 
r lcov  os  evatev  viro  TWa/cp  vXgeacrg  Z  395  f.  Andromache 
daughter  of  the  great-souled  Letion,  Eetion  who  dwelt  at  the 
foot  of  woody  Placus. 

q.  Similar  to  epanalepsis  is  the  so-called  eir/'n-Xo/cif  where 
the  finite  verb  is  repeated  in  a  participle,  as  gelhgaev  8e  (3ow - 
7 ns  irorv/a  r/Apg,  |  geWtjcracra  8’  erre/ra  ep  ey/cdrOero  koXtto)  H 
222  f.  ;  T ev/cpos  8’  copgr'jOg  gegacos  diro  rev^ea  hvaai,  |  r/K/crcop 
8’  opggOevros  d/covr/cre  bovpl  cpae/vp  N  182  f.  Teucer  rushed , 
eager  to  strip  off  his  armor,  but  at  him  as  he  rushed ,  Hector 
hurled  his  shining  spear  ;  r/E  tcrwp  dpggOg .  .  |  A  fa?  8’  bpgijdev - 
to?  ope^aro  r>  K/cropos  N  188  ff. 

Litotes  (X/rbrgs  or  geicoais),  a  simplicity  of  language, 


r. 


§  2,  *.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


21 


or  understatement  of  the  truth ,  is  common  to  all  languages ; 
Milton’s  “unblest  feet”  is  stronger  than  cursed  feet.  Ho¬ 
meric  examples  abound,  as  ov/c  ' Ayagegvovc  gvSave  6vgw>  A 
24  it  was  not  pleasing  to  the  soul  of  Agamemnon,  i.e.  it  was 
hateful ,  etc. ;  a^jr  S'  e?  /covXeov  Mae  geya  ovS'  dirlOgaev  | 

gvOw  ' Adrjvairji ;  A  220  f.  back  into  the  sheath  he  thrust  his 
great  sivord  nor  did  he  disobey  the  word  of  Athene,  i.e.  he 
obeyed  ;  f/ E/crMp  S'  ov  tl  6eas  eVo?  gyvoigaev  B  80T  ;  ov  /ca/cbv 
ear  tv  |  retpogevots  erapotatv  dgvvegev  aiirvv  oXedpov  S  128  f., 
i.e.  it  is  a  noble  thing ,  etc. ;  ov  gtv  dcpavporaTos  /3dX'  ’A yatwv 
O  11. 

s.  Periphrasis.  Certain  periphrases  occur  frequently, 

as  afere  Se  Uptdgoto  (30 ]v  T  105  bring  the  might  of  Priam,  i.e. 
the  mighty  Priam;  gereeuf  iepg  o?  T gXega^oto  (3  409  the 
strength  of  Telemachus,  etc.;  TlacjdXayovwv  S'  gyelro  HuMu- 
geveos  Xdatov  /cgp  B  851 ,  errea'  f/E Kropo?  M/ca  yagaX  gevos 

H  418  ;  eXOcov  yap  p  e/ca/cMae  (3lg  'H pa/cXgeig  A  690,  where  the 
gender  of  the  participle  shows  that  (3tg  'Hpa/cXgelg  is  equiva¬ 
lent  to  'Apa/cXegs,  which  ( - w  — )  was  not  suited  to  dactylic 

verse ;  tolov  yap  /cXeos  eaOXov  dirwXeaav  gvioyoto  ’VP  280,  for 
roiov  ev/cXeia  gvco^ov  ktX.  ;  ra  relpea  irdvra  .  .  to  re  aOevos 
’ Q.ptwvoi ;  %  485  f.  all  the  constellations  .  .  the  force  of  Orion  ; 
g  67T6L  covgaas  /cpaSigv  Am?  ge  teal  epyp  A  395. 

SovXtov  ggap  Z  463  is  simply  a  poetic  expression  for  slav¬ 
ery ,  eXevOepov  ggap  T  193  for  freedom,  oXiOptov  ggap  T  294 
for  destruction,  ggap  optyavucov  X  490  for  the  state  of  orphan¬ 
age,  voartgov  ggap  a  9  for  return. 

t.  Zeugma.  Sometimes  two  connected  subjects  or  objects 
are  made  to  depend  on  a  verb  which  is  appropriate  to  but 
one  of  them,  as  g  gev  eiretra  \  els  aXa  aXro  .  .  |  Zeu?  Se  eov 
irpos  Swga  ( sc .  ef3g')  A  531  ff.  she  then  leaped  into  the  sea ,  but 
Zeus  went  to  Ids  own  house  ;  g%L  e/edarov  |  Ittttoi  depaiiroSes 
/cal  TTouciXa  revye  e/ceuro  T  326  f.  ivhere  the  high-stepping 
horses  of  each  were  standing  and  the  bright  armor  teas 

ing ;  eSovai  re  i riova  ggXa  |  olvov  t  e^acrov  geXcgSea  M 


22 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


[§  2,  «*. 


319  f. ;  YLvkXcottwv  S'  e?  7 aiav  eXevcraoyev  eyyu?  eovrcov,  |  kclit- 
vov  r  avrwv  re  (f)6oyyrjv  olwv  re  /cal  alycov  1  166  f. ;  eaaaro  S' 
e/crocrOev  jpivov  iroXioio  Xv/cooo,  |  /cparl  S'  eVt  /cnSerjv  /cvverjv 
K  334  f.  Of.  Shakespeare,  Sonnet  55,  T  “Nor  Mars  his  sword, 
nor  war’s  quick  fire  shall  burn  |  The  living  record  of  your 
memory.” 

u.  Hysteeon  Proteron.  Occasionally  the  more  impor¬ 
tant  or  obvious  object  or  action  is  mentioned  before  another 
which  should  precede  it  in  strict  order  of  time,  as  aya  rpdfev 
ySe  yevovro  A  251  ivere  bred  and  born  with  him  (cf.  Shake¬ 
speare  Twelfth  Night  I  ii  “For  I  was  bred  and  born  |  Not 
three  hours’  travel  from  this  very  place.”),  7 ayeovri  re  yec- 
voyevw  re  S  208  to  him  as  he  is  married  and  born ,  eXyara  r 
dycf)ieaacra  OuooSea  /cal  Xovaaaa  e  264  putting  about  him  per¬ 
fumed  garments  and  bathing  him,  yXaivdv  re  yir&vd  re  evvvr 
'OSucrcrevs  e  229  Odysseus  put  about  him  cloak  and  tunic,  av- 
tou?  r  ay(3alveiv  dvd  re  rrpvyvtjaca  \vaat  i  178  both  themselves 
to  embark  and  to  loose  the  stern  hawsers,  61  S'  aveadv  re  7 ruXa? 


/cal  dirwaav  oyfias  4?  53T. 

v.  Later  Change  in  Words.  The  student  must  be 
watchful  to  apprehend  the  exact  Homeric  meaning  of  words 
which  are  used  in  a  slightly  different  sense  in  later  Greek. 
Thus  dyoprj  and  dycbv  are  used  in  Homer  of  an  assembly , 
gathering ,  not  of  market  and  contest.  'AlStjs  is  always  the 
name  of  a  person,  not  of  a  place.  dotSo?,  doiSf  are  used 
for  the  Attic  iroirjrps,  vyvo^,  —  eVo?  is  used  for  X070?  (only 
O  393,  a  56)  ,  Oeayos  for  voyos,  /cocryea)  for  racraco.  Seivos 
means  terrible ,  not  skillfid.  Seiirvov  is  the  principal  meal  of 
the  day,  whenever  it  is  taken,  ey yo?  means  spear ,  never 
sivord.  r/pcos  is  used  of  all  the  warriors;  it  does  not  mean 
a  hero  in  the  English  sense.  Oven  is  used  not  of  sacrifices  in 
general,  but  of  the  burning  of  the  drrapyai  (“  first  fruits  ”) 
or  OvrjXai  to  the  gods.  Oavyd^w  often  means  only  watch  in¬ 
tently.  /cpLvo)  is  select ,  discriminate ,  rather  than  judge,  voeco 
often  has  the  sense  of  alaOdvoyai  (which  is  not  Homeric), 


§  2,  y.] 


HOMERIC  STYLE. 


23 


'perceive.  ovogac  is  not  blame  in  a  general  way,  but  think 
not  enough ,  insufficient,  ovrd^w  is  wound  with  a  weapon  held 
in  the  hand,  not  with  a  missile,  ire  giro)  is  escort ,  attend ,  as 
well  as  send ;  cf.  irogiri]  convoy ,  irogiros  a  guide ,  and  irogiri], 
in  Attic,  processio?i.  i roXegos  is  often  battle  rather  than  war. 
irpijaao)  is  carry  through  rather  than  do  as  in  Attic. 
is  near ,  of  place,  not  almost,  ad) pa  is  used  only  of  a  dead 
body,  Sega?  being  used  of  the  living  form,  and  avro<;  and 
irepl  xP°t  faking  some  of  the  Attic  uses  of  ad)ya.  rdxa 
always  means  quickly ,  never  perhaps  as  in  later  Greek. 
TiOrjpi  is  often  used  like  iroteo)  make.  (f>6j3os  is  not  fright 
but  flight ;  <f)o/3eopai  is  not  fear  but  flee  ;  <j)v%a  is  flight  with 
the  added  notion  of  fear  or  shame,  (ppa^oo  is  point  out,  not 
say.  co?  does  not  mean  since. 

w.  The  accent  of  some  words  is  not  the  same  as  in  Attic, 
as  tbe  P  179  for  the  Attic  ISe;  in  lao$  (Attic  hxo?)  and  (frapos 
(Attic  </>dpo9),  this  results  from  the  difference  in  quantity 
(§  41  f  y).  The  ancient  grammarians  call  eiolgos,  ipf/gos, 
o/xoto?,  yeXoios  opyvca  the  Homeric  and  older  forms  for  eroi- 
gos,  epygos,  ktX.,  and  opyvtd.  Cf.  pvpia  countless  number,  for 
the  Attic  pvpia  ten  thousand. 

x.  aWpp  is  feminine  in  Homer,  as  n  365 ;  masculine  in 
Attic.  /clo)v  is  sometimes  feminine,  as  a  127 ;  sometimes 
masculine,  as  0  66.  ''IXto?  is  feminine  in  Homer  (except  per¬ 
haps  O  71),  but  neuter  (’'LUozd)  in  prose. 

y.  The  absence  from  the  Homeric  vocabulary  of  alaOdvo- 
gai,  Xoyos,  iroirfrps,  rdaao),  vgvos  has  been  noted  above.  To 
this  list  may  be  added  dvhpdiroha  (only  II  475),  apTo?  (only 

p  343,  a  120,  elsewhere  airos  is  used  instead),  (3dp/3apos  (but  * 
f 3ap/3ap6(f)(ovo ?  B  867),  Sgl  (only  I  337),  SovXos  (but  SovXt] 

T  409,  S  12,  hovXoavvr]  x  423,  SovXcov  r/gap  thrice,  SovXecov 
o)  252),  eVr^eqxo,  eairepa  (but  eairepos  and  eairepLof),  tyrco, 
Kvvrjyerrjf;  (only  i  120,  elsewhere  drfpnjnjpfl  gepos  Qgoipa  takes 
its  place),  gera^v  (only  A  156,  elsewhere  peaarjyvsfl  giaaga, 
gcaea)  (only  P  272),  irevir]  (only  £  157,  irevtxpos  y  848),  iropev- 


24 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


[§  3,  a. 


o/jlcu ,  cro^)09,  crocpLT]  (only  O  412),  arreipcn  (but  crirepga  once, 
e  490), 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 

§  3.  a.  In  syntax  as  in  forms,  where  the  Homeric  dialect 
differs  from  the  Attic,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  Homeric 
usage  is  the  earlier.  The  language  was  less  rigid ;  custom 
had  not  yet  established  certain  constructions  as  normal. 
There  was  greater  freedom  in  the  use  of  the  modes  and  the 
cases,  of  prepositions  and  conjunctions. 

b.  It  is  impossible  to  bring  the  Homeric  uses  of  the  modes 
under  the  categories  and  rules  that  prevailed  in  the  Attic 
period.  Intermediate  in  force  between  the  simple  future  and 
the  potential  optative  with  av  were 

(1)  the  subjunctive  as  a  less  vivid  future,  as  ov  yap  7 rco 
tolovs  IBov  dvepas  ovBe  iBcogaL  A  262  I  never  yet  saiv  such  men 
nor  shall  I  see  them  ; 

(2)  the  subjunctive  with  /cev  or  civ,  as  a  potential  mode, 
as  el  Be  /ce  gg  Bcococnv  eyco  Be  /cev  avros  eXcogac  A  137  hut  if 
they  shall  not  give  it ,  I  myself  will  then  take,  etc.;  rcov  /cev  tl$ 
roB ’  e^rjcnv  eirel  6dve  Bloc:  ’OBucrcreu?  a  396  of  these  some  one 
may  have  this  honor  since  divine  Odys.seus  perished ;  ov/c  dv 
rot  xpaLo-yr)  /ciQapic;  Y  54  the  cithara  ivould  not  in  that  case 
avail  thee  ; 

(3)  the  potential  optative  without  dv ,  as  peia  6eos  f  16 e- 
Xcov  /cal  TifXoOev  avBpa  aacocrac  <y  231  easily  could  a  god  if  he 
wished  bring  a  man  home  in  safety  even  from  a  distant  land. 

Examples  of  the  future  indicative  with  av  are  rare  and 
the  correctness  of  the  text  is  doubted.  Thus  /cev  geXrjcreL 
P  515  may  have  been  an  error  of  the  scribe  for  /cev  geXrjarj  in 
transferring  from  the  old  alphabet  (§  4  i). 


§  3,  d.] 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


25 


c.  a.  Homer  prefers  el  with  the  subjunctive  to  el  icev  ( at ' 
/cev )  or  el  av  with  the  subjunctive,  el  av  is  not  used  in  gen¬ 
eral  conditions. 

j3.  el'  tcev  is  rarely  used  with  the  optative  (29  times  in  all)  ; 
never  in  the  expression  of  a  wish,  el  av  is  used  with  the 
optative  but  once,  el  i rep  av  aural  j  pcovaai  delhotev  B  597  f. 

y.  el  with  the  optative  to  express  indefinite  frequency  of 
past  action,  is  found  but  once,  dW'  ec  rls  /xe  /cal  aWos  evl 
yeydpoicriv  evlrrrot  O  768  but  if  Q whenever )  even  another  in 
the  palace  upbraided  me. 

8.  The  optative  in  indirect  discourse  is  used  for  the  in¬ 
dicative  in  direct  discourse  only  in  questions,  except  elirelv, 
cos  eXOoi  /cal  i/cour  is  rrarpl8a  yaiav  co  287. 

e.  In  six  passages  the  optative  with  a :ev  is  used  in  the 
apodosis,  where  Homeric  and  Attic  usage  alike  lead  us  to 
expect  av  with  a  past  tense  of  the  indicative,  as  /cal  vv  /cev 
evu  aiToXoiro  ava£  avopcov  JXiveias ,  j  ei  pip  ap  o£u  vorjcre  ialos 
Ovydrpp  ’Acf)po8lrp  E  311  f.  “  Aeneas  would  have  perished 
if  Aphrodite  had  not  perceived,”  etc. 

f.  /cev  is  used  four  times  as  frequently  as  av.  av  is  more 
common  in  negative  than  in  affirmative  sentences. 

d.  The  cases  retained  more  of  their  original  force  than  in 
Attic  and  had  less  need  of  a  preposition  to  make  the  con¬ 
struction  distinct  (it  was  once  thought  that  the  poet  omitted 
the  preposition  for  the  convenience  of  his  verse),  as  the  abla- 
tival  genitive  in  T pcoas  dpcvve  vecov  O  731  he  was  warding 
off  the  Trojans  from  the  ships,  ep/cos  ’ Ayaioicriv  ireAerai  rroXe- 
pioio  /ca/coio  A  284  is  a  bulwark  for  the  Achaeans  from  (to 
keep  off)  evil  war ,  /capiraXlpicos  aveSv  7ro\irjs  d\os  gvr  opclffp 
A  359  swiftly  she  rose  as  a  mist  out  of  the  hoary  sea.  The 
dative  of  place  is  often  found  without  a  preposition,  as  rof’ 
copLOicnv  e^cov  A  45  having  his  bow  upon  his  shoulder. 

The  prepositions  still  retained  much  of  their  adverbial 
nature,  and  had  not  become  fixedly  attached  to  the  verbs 
which  they  modified  (§  37).  It  was  once  thought  that  the 


26 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


[§  3, 


occasional  separation  of  verb  and  preposition  was  a  poetic 
license,  and  (considered  as  a  surgical  operation)  it  was  called 

tmesis. 

e.  In  the  Homeric  period  certain  constructions  were  only 
beginning  to  appear  definitely  in  use,  as  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive  and  the  genitive  absolute.  The  infinitive  was 
assuming  more  and  more  the  character  of  an  indeclinable 
noun,  but  is  not  found  with  the  article,  ware  with  the  in¬ 
finitive  of  result  is  found  but  twice,  and  these  passages  are 
thought  to  be  corrupt ;  this  construction  is  found  but  four 
times  in  Pindar’s  odes. 

f.  a.  The  genitive  absolute  is  more  frequent  with  the 
present  participle  (52  examples,  28  in  Iliad  and  24  in  Odys¬ 
sey,  —  not  quite  half  being  temporal)  than  with  the  aorist 
participle  (21  examples,  IT  in  Iliad  and  4  in  Odyssey, — 
only  7  being  strictly  temporal).  The  genitive  absolute  with 
omitted  subject  is  particularly  rare,  and  is  denied  by  most 
scholars ;  but  an  approach  to  it  is  made  in  expressions  like 
Ty\e 8 '  iv  fiev  tcpaSiy  pueya  Trevdos  ae^ev  \  /3\tj/jL€vov 
p  489  f.,  where  the  participle  agrees  with  ’O5ucn}o9  to  be  sup¬ 
plied,  as  genitive  of  cause.  The  participle  sometimes  seems 
to  be  used  with  omitted  subject  when  it  really  agrees  with 
the  genitive  implied  in  a  preceding  dative  (<7.  y  below). 

/ 3 .  It  is  often  impossible  to  say  categorically  whether  the 
genitive  is  in  the  absolute  construction  or  rather  depends  on 
some  other  word,  as  viro  8e  Tpwe?  Ke^a8ovro  |  dv8pos  d/covria- 
aavros  A  497  f.,  where  the  position  of  the  genitive  at  the  be^ 
ginning  of  the  verse  gives  it  greater  independence,  but  it  was 
probably  influenced  by  the  verb:  the  Trojans  drew  hack  from 
the  man  as  he  hurled  his  javelin  ;  cf.  e/c\ay^av  8’  dp’  outtoI 
67T ’  cbpiOOV  ^toopievoto  |  aVTOXJ  K,LVr\0 kvTO<$  A  46  f. 

y.  Sometimes  a  preposition  is  used  where  the  genitive 
absolute  would  be  used  in  Attic  prose,  as  dpb<j>\  8e  vr/es  |  ap,ep- 
8a\eov  Kovdftrjcrav  dvcrdvrcov  vi r  ' A^ yauov  B  333  f. 

g-.  a.  The  dative  of  interest  is  often  used  with  the  verb 


§  3,  h.] 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


27 


where  the  English  idiom  prefers  a  possessive  genitive  with  a 
noun,  as  Seivcb  Se  oi  oaae  f>dav6ev  A  200  terribly  did  her  (lit. 
for  her  the )  eyes  gleam ;  6ea  Se  oi  etcXvev  dpi)?  S  767  the  god¬ 
dess  heard  her  prayer  (lit.  for  her  the  prayer')  ;  or  is  used 
instead  of  an  ablatival  genitive  with  a  preposition,  as  A avaoi- 
criv  deucea  Xoiyov  drrdxrei  A  97  ivill  ward  off  ignominious  de¬ 
struction  from  (lit.  for )  the  Danai  ;  or  instead  of  a  genitive 
with  verbs  of  ruling  and  leading,  as  rrdvrecrcn  S'  dvdcrcreiv 
A  288  to  reign  over  (lit.  be  the  king  for)  all ;  (Zeu?)  o?  rracri 
OvrjToicn  teal  ddavdroicriv  dvdacrei  M  242 ;  or  instead  of  the 
dative  with  a  preposition,  as  roiai  S'  dreary  A  68  for  them 
rose  (not  to  be  taken  as  a  local  dative,  among  them),  while 
in  iv  ’ Apyelotcnv  dvaards  T  175  the  poet  presents  the  same 
general  idea  from  another  point  of  view. 

j3.  This  dative  of  interest  is  used  even  of  things,  as  /ceXad- 
arjai  Se  vrjvcrl  /cadeiXogev  laria  it  dvr  a  l  149  when  the  ships 
were  beached  (lit.  for  the  ships  when  they  were  beached)  we 
lowered  all  the  sails. 

ry.  This  dative  was  felt  to  be  equivalent  to  the  genitive, 
and  is  often  followed  by  a  participle  or  adjective  in  the  geni¬ 
tive,  as  ryuv  S’  avre  Kare/cXacrOri  cf)lXov  r/rop  j  Seicrdvrwv  cpOoy 
yov  re  /3api)v  avrov  re  ireXwpov  l  256  f.  our  dear  hearts  sank 
within  us,  as  fear  came  upon  us,  etc.,  where  Seiadvrwv  agrees 
'  with  the  kjgcov  implied  in  ygiv. 

h.  a.  The  dative  is  used  with  crvv  or  dga,  corresponding 
to  g era  with  the  genitive  in  Attic  prose;  in  this  sense  even 
gerd  is  occasionally  used  with  the  dative  (almost  always 
plural),  as  errerovro  gerd  rrvoLrjs  dvegoio  (3  148  they  flew  ( i.e . 
kept  pace)  with  the  blasts  of  the  ivind  ;  cf.  aga  irvoifj ?  dvegoio 
a  98,  the  simple  dative  of  association  rrerero  i rvoifjs  dvegoio 
M  207. 

(3.  errl  is  used  with  the  dative  in  the  same  sense  of  hostility 
as  with  the  accusative  in  Attic,  as  wpaev  err ’  ’A pyeloiai  M  298 
roused  him  against  the  Argives  ;  cf.  erreaOai  errl  (3acriXea  Xen. 

An.  I  4.  14. 


28 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


[§  3,  i. 


7.  in to  is  used  with  the  dative  in  almost  the  same  sense 
as  with  the  genitive  in  Attic,  as  e8dyg  in ro  yepcrl  7 ro8co/ceo? 
AlafciSao  B  860  he  was  slain  by  the  hands  of  the  swift-footed 
Aeacides,  with  perhaps  more  of  the  original  local  force  of  the 
preposition. 

i.  Some  constructions  were  used  more  freely  and  con¬ 
stantly  than  in  later  Greek.  Certain  of  these  were  always 
looked  upon  as  poetic,  as  Oeig  'jrehloio  Z  50T  shall  run  over 
the  plain  ;  eireTovro  koviov  re?  irehioio  6  122  few  hastening  ( cov¬ 
ered  with  dust')  over  the  plain  (genitive  of  the  place  to  which 
the  action  belongs,  H.  760;  G.  179,  2);  7 rupo?  Oepeco  p  23 
warm  at  the  fire ;  yvgarripa^  dfilfcero  a  332  she  came  to  the 
suitors . 

j.  A  neuter  noun  in  the  plural  is  the  subject  of  a  plural 
verb  more  frequently  than  in  Attic.  The  imperfect  is  more 
freely  used  in  narrative,  to  describe  an  action  as  in  progress. 
The  historical  present  is  not  used,  earl  is  not  always  a 
mere  copula,  and  is  occasionally  modified  by  an  adverb  .as 
a  true  verb  of  existence,  cf.  eirei  vv  tol  aicra  yivvvOd  irep,  ov 
tl  ydXa  8rjv  A  416  since  thy  appointed  time  of  life  is  brief  \  etc., 
with  yivvvSa  |  pyecov  eaaerai  rj8o<z  A  317  f.  brief  shall  be  the 
good  from  us,  and  yivvvOa  8e  oi  7 eveO'  opy rj  A  466  but  brief 
was  his  onset. 

k.  y^pr]  is  still  a  noun,  construed  like  yped>  with  a 

genitive  of  the  thing  needed  and  occasionally  an  accusative 
of  the  person  (the  accusative  of  limit  of  motion  with  some 
verb  like  i /caver at  or  717 verac  supplied  in  thought)  ;  cf  reo 
ae  yp)  8  463  of  what  hast  thou  need,  with  riva  ypetco  roaov 
rLK6i  /3  28  and  eye  8e  ypeco  ylyverai  avrrj ?  8  634. 

yprjvac,  ypewv,  eypgv,  ypi)v  kt\.  are  not  Homeric ;  8ei  is 
found  only  I  337.  While  verbals  in  -to?  are  more  freely  em¬ 
ployed  than  in  Attic,  verbals  in  -Teo?  are  not  used. 

l.  a.  Particles.  The  beginner  in  reading  Homer  is  per¬ 
plexed  by  a. large  number  of  particles  that  are  often  difficult 
to  render  by  English  words.  Their  force  can  often  be  best 


§  3,  m.] 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


29 


given  by  the  order  of  the  words  in  the  translation  or  by  the 
tone  of  voice  in  reading;  to  translate  pd  as  was  natural  (or 
even  you  see )  or  ye  at  least ,  often  throws  upon  the  particle 
very  disproportionate  emphasis.  The  student  can  most  easily 
and  clearly  appreciate  the  force  of  a  particle  by  comparing  a 
number  of  examples  which  have  become  familiar  to  him ;  he 
will  then  see  the  importance  of  these  particles  to  the  char¬ 
acter  and  tone  of  a  speech  or  of  the  narrative. 

j3.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  Homer  Sy  may  stand  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  a  clause,  re  is  used  far  more  freely  than  in  Attic 
prose ;  a  single  re  often  being  used  to  connect  single  notions, 
as  Kvveaaiv  |  olcdvoictl  re  A  4  f.  The  poet  does  not  use  ov/covv, 
Kairot ,  roivvv,  Syr  a,  SyOev,  elra  (but  erretra ),  or  the  causal 
are.  &>?,  Sy,  and  ye  are  less  frequent  than  in  Attic. 

y.  07T&)?  is  rare  as  a  final  particle,  occurring  only  about  a 
dozen  times ;  ocj)pa  is  the  usual  particle  to  introduce  a  final 
clause. 

m.  a.  Interrogative  Particles.  The  general  interrog¬ 
ative  particle  in  Homer  is  y,  but  in  a  double  question  (where 
the  Attic  Greek  uses  rrorepov  .  .  y)  y  or  ye  stands  in  the  first 
member,  y  or  ye  in  the  second,  as  rovr  dyopevcrov  .  .  J  veov 
pieOerreis,  y  /cal  irarpduos  eacn  \  ^etvos  a  174  ff.  tell  me  this  .  . 
whether  thou  art  come  for  the  first  time  or  ivhether  thou  hast 
been  a  guest  of  my  father ;  cf.  A  190  ff.,  T  239  f.  Where  the 
questions  are  less  closely  connected,  y  may  introduce  each, 
as  d)  %eivoi,  rlve<;  eare  ;  7 roOev  irXeW'  vypa  /ceXevOa ;  [  y  n  tcara 
7 rpy^iv ;  r/  akakrjcrOe  |  old  re  XyLarypes  y  71  ff. 

Strangers ,  who  are  ye?  Whence  sail  ye  the  watery  ways? 
Sail  ye  on  trade?  Or  are  ye  wandering  idly  like  pirates? 

ft.  When  y  introduces  a  single  question,  it  is  rarely  used 
as  in  Attic,  as  a  mere  interrogation  point ;  it  regularly  im¬ 
plies  emotion  of  some  kind.  This  y  hLairopyrucos  (of  inter¬ 
rogation)  is  still  closely  allied  with  the  y  (deftaLwrucos  (of 
asseveration),  but  the  y  hLarropyrucos  must  be  carefully  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  y  hca^ey/cri/cos  ( disjunctive ). 


30 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


[§  3>  n. 


y.  The  interrogative  apa  is  not  Homeric, 
n.  Parataxis.  The  Homeric  language  is  far  less  distinct 
than  the  Latin  or  the  English  in  the  expression  of  logical 
relations,  and  gives  less  prominence  to  the  logical  forms  of 
syntax;  but  it  is  seldom  difficult  to  appreciate  the  ancient 
idiom  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  find  the  Homeric  point  of 
mew. 


The  Homeric  poems  contain  many  survivals  of  the  simplest 
form  of  sentences.  In  the  earliest  stage  of  the  Greek  lan¬ 
guage  clauses  were  not  combined  with  each  other  as  second¬ 
ary  and  principal ;  they  were  simply  added  one  to  the  other. 
To  use  the  technical  terms,  coordination  or  parataxis  (irapd- 
Taft?)  was  the  rule,  —  not  subordination  or  hypotaxis  (viro- 
Taft?).  Hypotaxis  was  not  possible  until  the  language  had 
relative  pronouns  or  subordinate  conjunctions  to  serve  as 
joints  to  connect  the  clauses ;  but  originally  the  relatives 
were  demonstratives,  and  relative  sentences  have  been  called 
parenthetic  demonstrative  sentences.  Thus  be  was  used  in 
the  apodosis  of  relative  and  conditional  sentences ;  this  was 
especially  frequent  when  the  relative  or  conditional  clause 
preceded,  as  el  be  ice  pd)  bcbcoeriv,  eye o  be  tcev  avro<;  eXcoycu  A 
137  but  if  they  shall  not  give  it ,  ( but )  I  myself  shall  then  take, 
etc. ;  elos  6  ravd ’  cop/iaive  .  .  rj\0e  b ’  ’A Opvrj  A  193  f.  ivhile  he 
was  pondering  this  .  .  (but')  Athena  came ;  oitj  rrep  cfivWcov 
yeveij,  tolt)  be  ical  dvbpcov  Z  146  as  is  the  race  of  leaves ,  (but) 
such  is  also  the  race  of  men.  So  avrdp  and  dWd  are  used 
with  stronger  emphasis  than  be,  as  el  be  av  tcaprepo ?  even,  6ea 
be  ere  yelvaro  gr]Tr\p  |  a\X'  obe  (fxzprepos  eanv  67 rel  'irKeovecraiv 
dvdcrcrec  A  280  f.  but  if  thou  art  mighty  and  a  goddess  is  thy 
mother,  but,  etc.,  where  the  apodosis  is  really  contrasted  with 
the  protasis,  cf.  A  81  quoted  in  the  next  paragraph. 

o.  Compare  with  the  foregoing  the  use  of  /ou  in  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  relative  sentences,  to  mark  the  connection  of  the 
clauses,  as  d\\ ’  ore  rerparov  rj\0e v  eros  .  .  |  /cal  rore  brj  ri? 
eecrre  /3  107  f.  but  when  the  fourth  year  came  (and)  then  some 


§  3,  <?.] 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


31 


one  told  etc.;  gyo<;  S’  ypiyeveia  (f>dvrj  poSoSdfcrvXos  ’Hco?,  |  /cal 
tot  eycov  dyopgv  Oeyevos  ictX.  l  170  f.  but  when  Dawn  appeared 
.  .  (and')  then  I  called  together  etc.  Thus  also  re  was  freely 
used  in  subordinate  clauses,  as  09  ice  deois  eir  are  16  grab  ydXa  t 
e/cXvov  avTov  A  218  ivhoever  obeys  the  gods ,  (and)  himself  the 
gods  readily  hear;  and  re  —  re  is  found  in  both  protasis  and 
apodosis,  marking  their  correlation,  as  el  i rep  yap  re  %6\ov  .  . 
KaTaire-^rg,  |  dXXd  Te  real  yeTOTnaOev  eyet  kotov  A  81  f.  for 
even  if  he  should  restrain  his  ivrath ,  but  even  hereafter  etc. 

p.  The  first  part  of  a  paratactic  sentence  may  introduce  the 
cause  or  reason  for  what  follows,  as  in  Andromache’s  words 
to  Hector,  r/E  /crop  drap  av  you  ecrcn  iraTgp  /cal  iroTvia  ygTgp,  \ 
gSe  fcaaLyvrjTos,  erv  Se  you  OaXepos  TrapaKoiri y  •  |  dXX’  dye  vvv 
eXeacpe  kcu  avTov  ylyv  eirl  irvpycp  Z  429  ff.  But  thou ,  Hector , 
art  my  father  etc.,  which  implies  “  Hector,  since  thou  art 
my  all.” 


q.  Correlative  Constructions.  The  Greek  language 
was  always  fond  of  a  parallel  or  antithetic  construction,  a 
contrast,  a  balance,  where  the  English  subordinates  one 
thought  to  the  other  ;  but  the  adversative  relation,  where 
the  English  idiom  would  use  a  subordinate  clause  introduced 
by  for,  although,  when,  while,  or  since,  is  more  frequent  in 
these  poems  than  in  later  Greek,  as  09  ol  TrXgalov  I£e  ydXcaTa 
8e  yuv  cjuXeeaicev  g  171  who  sat  near  him  for  (lit.  but)  he  ivas 
his  favorite ;  dXXa  Tvideaff  •  ayefyeo  Se  vecoTepco  iaTov  eyeio  A 
259  ;  peed  t  dpcyvcoTrj  7 reXerat,  /caXal  Se  Te  irdcrai  £  108  she  is 
easily  recognized  although  (lit.  but)  all  are  beautiful ;  ’H&)9  Se 
KpoKoireTrXos  e/cl&vaTO  rracrav  67 r  alav  |  ol  S’  eis  derrv  eXwv 
11  695  f.  Dawn  ivas  spreading  her  rays  over  the  whole  earth 
when  (lit.  but)  these  drove  into  the  city ;  (cf.  hvaero  r  geXtos 
/cal  toI  fcXvTov  aXcros  l/covto  £  321  the  sun  set  and  these  came 
etc.,  for  as  the  sun  set  etc.,  a  construction  which  is  not  rare 
in  English  or  in  later  Greek,  as  /cal  gSg  Te  gv  irepl  TrXg- 
Oovcrav  dyopav  /cad  ep^ovTau  Trapa  ftao-bXecos  /cal  ’Tbacrafepvovs 
/cgpv/ce 9  Xen.  An.  II  1.  7  “when  it  was  about  the  time  .  . 


32 


HOMERIC  SYNTAX. 


[§  3,  r. 


heralds  come  ”  etc .)  ;  <fivXXa  ra  gev  r  avegos  ya/xd§t9  yeet, 
dWa  Se  O'  vXrj  j  ryXeOococra  fivec,  eapos  S'  eiriyiyverai  wprj 
Z  14T  f.  .  .  when  the  season  of  Spring  comes  on;  y  oi>x  aXt? 
4)9  to  7 rdpoiOev  e/cecpere  7roX\a  /cal  ecrOXa  \  /crrjgar'  ega,  gvrj- 
arypes,  ey4>  S'  ere  vrjmo 9  rja  (3  312  f.,  where  the  last  clause  is 
equivalent  to  egov  en  vyiriov  ovros,  —  ygev  Srj  nror  egev  irdpos 
e/cXves  ev^agevoco  .  .  yS'  en  /cal  vvv  got  roS'  eirL/cpyyvov  i 
A  453  ff.  as  thou  didst  hear  my  former  prayer  so  noiv  also 
fulfil  this  my  desire;  /cpelcrcrcov  gev  Zeo?  .  .  /cpeicrcrwv  avre  Ato? 
7 ever)  /crX.  <E>  190  f.  as  Zeus  is  mightier  than  the  rivers ,  so  is 
the  race  of  Zeus  etc. 

r.  avrdp  also  is  used  where  a  causal  particle  would  be  used 
in  English,  as  oSvvycn  ireTrapgevos  *  avrdp  occrros  j  cogw  evl 
an^apdb  yXyXaro  E  399  f.  thrilled  ivith  pains  since  the  arrow 
was  fixed  in  his  stout  shoulder. 

In  these  contrasted  clauses,  av,  avre,  avrdp,  arap,  dXXa,  as 
well  as  Se,  may  be  used  in  correlation  with  gev. 

s.  A  copulative  conjunction  is  sometimes  used  where  the 

English  uses  a  disjunctive  or,  as  rparXfi  rerparrXfj  re  A  128 
threefold  or  (and')  fourfold,  in  which  prominence  is  given  to 
the  second  member,  as  in  Se/ca/cus  re  /cal  el/coad/ci 9  I  379;  cf. 
eva  /cal  Svo  B  346,  re  /cal  rrrpau^d  B  303,  rpiyfia  re  /cal 

rerpayfd  T  363,  7rez)T<2eTe9  ye  /cal  e^dere 9  7  115,  rpls  ga/cape 9 
/cal  rerpd/as  e  306  (0  terque  quaterque  beati ,  Verg.  Aen.  I  94). 
Cf.  ev  re  /cal  xeiPov  Thuc.  II  35  better  or  worse ,  bis  terque 
Hor.  A.  P.  440,  rarus  duabus  tribusque  civitatibus  conventus 
Tac.  Agric.  12. 

t.  The  Homeric  poet  sometimes  puts  into  an  independent 
clause  the  incidental  thought  which  in  later  Greek  would  be 
expressed  regularly  by  a  participle,  as  Xaol  S'  ypyaavro  Oeois 
ISe  yeZpa 9  dveax°v  F  318  the  people  prayed  to  the  gods  ivith 
uplifted  hands  (lit.  and  lifted  their  hands)  for  xelpas  dva- 
a^ovre 9,  cf.  geydX ’  eo^eTO,  yetpa 9  dvaa^d/v  A  450  ;  (Zevs  gep- 
gypi^e  4)9  ’A^iXi/a)  rtgyory,  oXecry  Se  7roXea9  SttI  vyvcrlv  ’A xaccov 
B  4  was  pondering  lioiv  he  might  honor  Achilles  by  destroying 


§  h  a .] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


33 


(lit.  and  destroy )  etc. ;  (3rj  p  ipiev  els  dyopr/v,  TraXdyp  3’  eye 
yaXiceov  eyyos  j3  10  for  /3i]  eycov  ktX.,  cf.  rfxde  (fiepcov,  eycov 
A  12  f. ;  dXX'  cuceovcra  Kcidgao,  eye 5  S'  eTnireldeo  pivdcp  A  565 
for  epic 3  ireidogevrj  pujdw, — rovSe  Xiaaovro  yepovres  |  A ItcoXmv 
rrepurov  Se  dewy  ieprjas  I  575  “they  sent  the  priests  of  the  gods 
to  supplicate  him  ” ;  ovS ’  eXad'  AXayra  .  .  j  Zevs,  oVe  Sp  T pco- 
ecrcn  SlSov  erepaXtcea  vitcr/v  P  626  f.  for  ovS '  eXade  SiSovs  ktX. 
See  §  1  e. 

u.  This  use  is  sometimes  striking  in  comparisons,  as  cos  re 
crcf)f}/ces  .  .  oltcia  rrotpawyrai  oScp  em  iracTraXoecrcrg,  |  ovS'  diro- 
Xeiirovcnv  .  .  dXXa  geyovres  .  .  dgvyoyrat  vrepl  re/cvwv  M  167  ff. 
as  ivasps  build  their  houses  near  a  rocky  road ,  nor  do  they 
abandon  them ,  but  remain  and  defend  their  children ,  where 
the  point  of  comparison  lies  not  at  all  in  o'Uca  Tronjcrcoyrai 
ktX.  but  wholly  in  the  ovS'  drroXeirrovcny  /crX.  See  §  2  e. 

v.  Conversely,  the  participle,  as  in  later  Greek,  often  con¬ 
tains  the  principal  idea,  as  gvpogevoicn  Se  roicn  §dvr\  poSoSa- 
ktvXos  ’Haj?  109  “  they  wept  until  Dawn  appeared  ” ;  roicn 
Se  repiropievoicn  pueXa s  errl  earrepos  rjXdey  a  423  ;  oefipa  Xel^Jravre 
Ktolrrjv  fl  285 ;  fcarevevaev  |  'IXioy  etcirepcrayr  evreiyeoy  dreo- 
yeeadai  B  113  promised  that  I  should  sack  llios  and  return  ; 
but  in  the  very  next  verse  is  the  English  idiom,  vvv  Se  /ca/cpy 
dirarriv  /3ovXevcraTO,  teal  pie  /ceXevec  |  Svcr/cXea  ''Apyos  i/cecrdai 
B  114  f.  planned  an  evil  deceit  and  bids  me  go  etc.,  for  a7rd- 
ttjv  fiovXevo-as.  The  two  constructions  are  interchanged  in 
ervypae  /3aXoov  O  581  and  rvygeras  /3ej3Xy/ceL  A  106  ff. 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 

§  4.  a.  The  dialect  of  the  Homeric  poems  is  in  one  sense 
artificial :  it  was  spoken  at  no  place  and  at  no  time.  But  it 
is  not  a  mosaic  composed  of  words  and  forms  chosen  capri¬ 
ciously  from  the  different  Greek  dialects ;  it  is  a  product  of 


34 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  4,  b. 


natural  growth.  It  was  developed  under  the  influence  of 
the  dactylic  hexameter  by  successive  generations  of  bards 
who  preserved  obsolete  or  obsolescent  words,  phrases,  and 
forms  which  were  suited  to  their  verse,  and  who  adopted  also 
from  the  common  speech  of  their  own  times  what  was  avail¬ 
able  for  their  use.  Thus  older  and  newer  forms  subsisted 
side  by  side,  just  as  the  English  poet  can  choose  between 
loveth  and  loves,  lovSd  and  lov'd ,  aye  and  ever.  The  poets 
unconsciously  excluded  all  that  was  not  adapted  to  dactylic 
verse,  but  they  did  no  violence  to  their  language  ;  they  did 
not  wantonly  change  quantities  or  introduce  new  termina¬ 
tions.  “  The  dialect  did  not  spring  from  a  formless  linguistic 
dough  kneaded  in  the  trough  of  the  verse.” 

b.  This  conservation  of  old  forms  together  with  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  new  forms  was  very  convenient  for  the  verse ; 
e.g.  for  the  infinitive  of  the  verb  be,  Homer  could  use  egge- 

vat  as  dactyl,  w  w  ;  egevac  as  anapaest,  w  w ;  eggev  as 

trochee,  _  w ;  egev  as  pyrrhic,  w  w ;  elvcu  as  spondee, _ . 

Naturally,  the  choice  being  offered,  metrical  convenience  de¬ 
termined  which  of  these  forms  should  be  used.  Metrical 
convenience  often  or  generally  decided  between  the  use  of 
' A^cllol  or  ’A pyetoo. 

c.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of  synonyms  and  stock  epi¬ 
thets  or  phrases ;  Homer  uses  3£o?  as  a  disyllable,  Oelos  (better 
written  dedo?)  where  he  wishes  a  trisyllable,  as  3£o?  'OSvcrcrevs, 
but  'OBvcrcrgo^  Oetoio  at  the  close  of  a  verse.  The  most  fre¬ 
quently  recurring  epithets  of  Odysseus  are  i roAvrAas,  iroAv- 
grjTLs,  7 roAvgp^avo^,  raAacri^pcov,  iroLfciAog^Tys,  —  all  of  dif¬ 
ferent  metrical  value.  ava%  dvhpwv  '  A<y  age  gvcov  is  used  after 
the  feminine  caesura  (§  40/)  of  the  third  foot,  but  evpv  tcpelwv 
'Ayagegvcov,  'A.<yagegvovos  ’A rpeihao,  or  ’A yagegvova  iroigeva 
Aawv  after  the  masculine  caesura  of  the  same  foot.  n/VT^dSeco 
’Ap^EUJo?  is  used  after  the  penthemimeral  caesura  (§  40  <2),  iro- 
3a?  co/cu?  XA^XXei;?  after  the  hephthemimeral  caesura  (§  40  g'), 
but  7 roSdpKTjs  Slos  XAytXXeii?,  7ro3d>/ceo?  A la/ctSao  or  agvgovo 9 


§  4,/.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


35 


A la/clSao,  irohapfcei  Ylrj\eiu>VL,  n roSco/cea  UrjXeLcova,  dpLvpiova  IT r/~ 
A eicova,  or  ’A ^cWrja  irroXliropOov ,  after  the  feminine  caesura 
of  the  third  foot,  with  ’A^XXeii?  as  a  tag  when  the  verse 
is  filled  up  to  the  Bucolic  diaeresis  (§  40  Ji).  Of.  the  epithets 

of  Apollo,  e/caroio  A  385  ww _ w,  6/ctj/3uXov  A  14  w _ w  w, 

e/caepryos  A  479  W  W  _  W,  6fCCLTTj/3o\oV  A  370  w  W  _  W  w,  €KCITT)- 

fteXerao  A  75  w  w _ w _ w  •  See  §  1 

d.  The  convenience  of  the  verse  decided  whether  the  poet 
should  say  &><?  (/xfro  (before  a  consonant)  or  o>?  ecpar  (before 
a  vowel),  eratpos  or  eVapo?  (§  5  A),  irdvvvyo^  or  Travvv^io^, 
pLopipios  or  pbopcnpLos,  tcelvos  or  e/cecpo 9.  ala  is  used  as  well  as 
7 ata,  but  only  at  the  close  of  the  verse,  where  other  old  forms 
are  preserved,  as  diro  TrarpiSos  alr\<$  a  75;  cf.  69  irarpiba  yalav 
B  174;  while  yrj  is  used  half  a  dozen  times,  as  T  104.  In 
this  way  the  Homeric  poems  doubtless  had  considerable  in¬ 
fluence  on  the  language,  assisting  in  the  preservation  of  old 
words  and  forms  and  in  the  establishment  in  use  of  new 
words  and  forms  which  were  metricallv  convenient. 

t j 

e.  The  dialect  is  essentially  Ionic  and  seems  to  have  origi¬ 
nated  among  the  Ionians  of  Asia  Minor,  influenced  possibly 
by  the  speech  and  certainly  far  more  by  the  old  poems  of 
their  Aeolian  neighbors.  The  oldest  form  of  Greek  Epic 
songs  seems  to  have  been  Aeolic,  but  the  Ionians  brought 
Epic  poetiy  to  perfection.  Even  the  Pythian  priestess  de¬ 
livered  the  oracles  of  Apollo  in  Epic  verse  and  Ionic  dialect, 
and  the  Dorian  Spartans  sang  about  their  camp-fires  the 
Ionian  songs  of  Tyrtaeus.  Homer,  however,  does  not  have 
certain  marked  Ionic  peculiarities,  as  kws,  /core  for  7 rco?,  7 Tore. 

f.  A  considerable  number  of  Aeolisms  is  found  in  the 
poems,  especially  in  certain  phrases  and  in  certain  feet  of 
the  verse,  as  aXXv8i<?  aXXo?,  viratQa.  This  traditional  Aeolic 
influence  appears  still  more  marked  in  the  survival  of  the 
digamma  (§  14)  which  in  the  Homeric  age  was  nearly  or 
quite  obsolete  in  the  ordinary  Ionic  dialect ;  110  trace  of  it 
appears  in  the  poems  of  Archilochus  of  Paros  in  the  seventh 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  4,  g. 


3G 

century  B.c.  Aeolic  forms  are  found  in  the  Homeric  poems 
even  where  the  metre  does  not  require  them,  as  ocbeXXeiev 
/3  334  for  otyelXeuev,  epefievvp  E  659  (ipefiea-vof),  dpyevvfjcu 
r  141  (dpyea-vof),  (pppcrlv  A  268  for  OrjpcrLv,  (fX^erac  p  221 
for  OXifreraL.  The  general  formulaic  character  of  these  Aeo- 
lisms  indicates  that  they  were  borrowed  from  earlier  poems 
rather  than  from  the  Aeolians  of  the  Homeric  age.  Aeolic 
form  or  coloring  is  found  also  in  some  proper  names,  as  Sepal- 
rr/s  (found  also  in  a  Thessalian  inscription  of  214  B.c.),  from 
Oepcros  the  Aeolic  form  of  Odpcros  insolence ,  daring ,  0 epcriXo - 
X°s,  ' AXiOepcrr)^,  N avcnKaa  (Ionic  z^u?),  and  perhaps  Bed  god¬ 
dess  (Ionic  7)  deo?).  Another  Aeolic  peculiarity  is  the  use 
of  the  smooth  breathing  as  in  pleasure  (cf.  /JSu?),  aage- 
vos  glad  (cf.  dvSdvoo,  eaSov^)  ;  see  §  12  m. 

g.  Some  forms  seem  to  be  borrowed  from  other  dialects ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  the  poems  were  com¬ 
posed,  there  was  less  difference  between  the  dialects  than  at 
the  earliest  period  when  we  have  monumental  evidence  con¬ 
cerning  them.  Thus  the  forms  lirirora,  gr/rlera  ktX.  (§  16  b') 
seem  to  be  ancient  rather  than  specifically  Aeolic;  that  they 
were  not  introduced  simply  metri  causa  is  shown  by  the  use 
of  vetpeX r/yepera  Zeu?  A  511  where  ve^eXrjyepeTgs  is  metrically 
admissible. 

h.  Some  anomalies  of  form  (as  of  verse)  are  as  yet  unex¬ 
plained,  but  it  may  be  assumed  that  all  which  remain  either 
(1)  were  justified  by  the  usage  of  the  people  and  might  be 
explained  by  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 
language,  or  (2)  followed  the  analogy  of  what  was  in  use,  or 
(3)  are  errors  which  have  found  their  way  into  the  text  dur¬ 
ing  the.  course  of  transmission  to  the  present  time.  As  the 
poems  were  handed  down  among  the  Greeks  at  first  orally, 
and  afterwards  still  uncritically  for  centuries,  errors  unavoid¬ 
ably  crept  in  and  there  was  a  gradual  assimilation  of  what 
was  obsolete  to  later  and  more  familiar  forms,  when  the  older 
forms  were  unprotected  by  the  metre.  erjvSave  y  143  is  prob- 


§  5,  a.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


37 


ably  an  ancient  assimilation  to  Attic  usage  for  edvSave  ( efdiv - 
Save,  §§  14,  25  i). 

i.  Doubtless  also  mistakes  were  committed  in  the  process 
of  transferring  the  poems  to  the  later  alphabet  (in  official 
use  at  Athens  from  the  archonship  of  Euclides,  403  B.c.) 
from  the  earlier  alphabet  in  which  E  was  used  for  e,  tj,  and 
the  spurious  diphthong  et  (which  arises  from  compensative 
lengthening  or  contraction,  Hadley  14  b),  and  O  was  used 
for  o,  co,  and  the  spurious  diphthong  ov.  Thus  d>003  of  the 
old  alphabet  could  be  interpreted  as  </>oo?  (the  form  interme¬ 
diate  between  the  earlier  cfrdos  and  the  Attic  as  i rocrcri 
is  intermediate  between  i toS-o-l  and  ttocti)  or  cj)6cos,  but  the 
latter  form  seemed  more  natural  to  those  who  said  cfxu 9,  and 
it  was  introduced  into  the  text,  as  B  49.  E05^  might  be  9709 

(or  elo?)  or  ecos,  but  the  latter  as  the  familiar  form  is  found 
in  the  Mss.,  even  A  193,  where  the  metre  demands  the  earlier 
form  ;  and  eicos  is  found  where  the  rational  form  7709  (or  elos^) 
could  stand.  EEN  might  be  rjev,  ggv,  eev,  egv.  The  last 
form  was  thought  to  be  “  by  bietcraai 9  ”  for  rjv  (as  egv,  the 
possessive  pronoun,  for  97^),  and  seems  to  have  been  often 
substituted  wrongly  for  eev  (§  34  g').  Since  cnreovs  was  the 
Attic  genitive  of  crireos,  airetovs  seemed  more  natural  than 
crirelos  (or  aireeos')-,  as  vito  crireiov 9  *  irepl  ktX.  l  141  (see 
§  18  n).  epos  3  315  is  protected  by  the  metre,  and  is  sus¬ 
tained  by  the  oblique  cases  epco  and  epov  (§  18  e),  but  the 
Attic  epcos  has  supplanted  it  in  T  442,  3  294,  where  a  con¬ 
sonant  follows. 

VOWELS  AND  VOWEL  CHANGES. 

§  5.  a.  97  is  regularly  used  for  «,  as  cvyopp,  bgoirj ;  except 
in  6ed  goddess ,  Xao9  } people,  and  some  proper  names  (as 
Alveias ,  N avcnicda,  §  4  f^).  Occasionally,  as  B  370,  gdv  is 
found  instead  of  the  less  frequent  gyjv  (the  strong  form  of 
pcev).  aXro  A  532  (from  dXXogac)  is  another  instance  of  d, 
unless  it  is  to  be  written  aXro. 


38 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  5,  b. 


1).  Sometimes,  especially  in  abstract  nouns,  rj  represents 
Attic  a,  as  evi rXotrjv  I  362,  aXrjQeirjv  i)  297. 

c.  The  final  d  of  the  stem  is  retained  in  the  genitive  end¬ 
ings  -do  and  -dcov  of  the  1st  declension,  as  ’ ArpeiSao  A  203. 

d.  do  is  often  changed  to  eco  by  transfer  of  quantity : 
’A rpeiSao,  ’A rpeiSeco.  Cf.  /3aai\r)o<;  with  Attic  /SaatXeeo?. 
But  the  frequent  Xao?  never  has  the  Attic  form  Xed>?. 

e.  Compensative  lengthening  is  sometimes  found  where 
it  is  not  in  Attic,  as  feAo?  (JeVfo?),  eive/ca  (Lesbian  eWe- 
kcl ),  fcovpr/  (rcopfa),  fiovvos,  ovpos  (opfof),  hovpos.  It  is 
omitted  in  fioXercu  A  319  (/3odXeTO;t,  Aeolic  fioWercu,  cf.  /3eX - 
t lov)  ;  and  in  three  compounds  of  7rod?  (7 rod-),  as  deXAo7ro? 


0  409. 

A  vowel  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  following 
syllable  in  xeiP from  a  stem  x6PL~>  anc^  'ITOl’Xv^ 

(Attic  770X^9,  §  20  ff 

f.  Diphthongs  occasionally  preserve  t  where  it  is  lost  in 
Attic  before  a  vowel:  ate/,  aierbs,  e’reAetero  (§  29  if  olvo/3a- 
peloov,  oXocrj,  irvoup,  ypdcreto?.  Cf.  cucovi 'j  with  Attic  d/corj. 

g.  But  t  is  lost  before  a  vowel  in  wtcea  (cd/ceta)  Bpt?  B  786, 
AtVea?  N  541  (AtVeta?,  cf.  /cpeioov  with  the  proper  names  KpeW 
and  Kpeoucra),  in  -00  for  -oto  as  genitive-ending  of  the  2d 
declension  (§  17  c)  and  in  e’/xe'o  for  ep-eto,  etc.  (§  24  e) ;  cf. 
piolp  oXop  <f>  83  with  0X0 t)  piotpa  X  5,  yymcretot?  A  246  with 
Xpccew  A  15.  With  these  examples  may  be  compared  Attic 
7 roelv  ( ttolglv ),  eXda  (e’Xata).  As  in  Attic,  the  penult  is  some¬ 


times  short  in  0/09  (as  A  489,  A  473)  and  oto?  (as  77  312, 
X  105).  Cf.  eparalov  v  379,  ^a/mtewdSe?  k  243. 

Cf.  also  the  loss  of  v  in  Xoe  k  361  (eXooe),  ex^av  %  347 
(eyeoaz^),  ciXeacrOe  S  774  (dXedao"de),  vpecrcn  from  vrjvs,  {3acri - 
Xfio?  from  ySaatXeu?,  T udeo?  from  Toded?.  See  §  41  0.  Cf. 
ppcoos  £  303. 

li.  ercLLpos  (erap-ios')  is  not  a  dialectic  variation  of  erapos 
but  is  derived  from  it  as  AtVedXto?  A  399  from  AtrcoXo?  A  527, 


'iravvvx^o^  cl  443  from  'rrdvwxos  T'  218.  Cf.  §  19  b. 


§  7,  a.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


39 


§  6.  Contraction,  a.  Concurrent  vowels  generally  re¬ 
main  uncontracted:  ae/cwv,  dXyea,  irtus  (in  nominative  and 
vocative  singular),  67?  (o/rt?  =  ovis,  ewe).  Attic  ev  is  regu¬ 
larly  ev  before  two  consonants  and  the  adjective  is  always 
evs  or  ?}u?.  Patronymics  from  nouns  in  -eu?  form  -et8r)<?, 
-etcov,  as  ’A Tp€L&7]<;  A  7,  TLrjXetcova  A  197. 

b.  When  contraction  occurs,  it  follows  the  ordinary  rules, 
except  that  eo  and  eov  generally  give  ev:  Odpcrevs  P  578,  Oe- 
pevs  7]  118,  (friXevvTcv ?  y  221  ;  but  irovToiropovarjs  X  11,  ogov- 
pLcu  A  233. 

c.  ea  are  very  rarely  contracted  into  g,  as  T v8rj  A  384 
(TuSea),  dicpai )  (3  421,  alvoiraOr)  cr  201. 

(1.  7je  are  contracted  into  in  ngrjs  I  605  ( jiggei ?),  nggyra 
A  475,  re^vgcraat  rj  110  (re^y^ecraai) . 

e.  lcl  are  contracted  into  t  in  dtcoins  k  7  Qatcoinas).  l  and 
e  are  contracted  in  [pa,  as  B  420,  and  in  li pyxes,  as  e  66. 

f.  oe  are  contracted  into  ov  in  Xcorovvra  M  283. 

g\  or)  are  contracted  into  co  in  err  t  [3  doer  o  gat,  as  a  378,  6y8do- 
Kovra  B  568. 

li.  The  optative-sign  l  is  sometimes  lost  in  a  preceding  v 

(§  28  6). 

i.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  original  form  of  the  Homeric 
poems  many  vowels  were  uncontracted  which  are  contracted 
in  the  Mss.  and  ordinary  editions.  The  oi  of  kolXos  can  be 
pronounced  as  two  syllables  67  times  out  of  68  385  being 

the  exception).  So  al8oios  may  generally  be  al8o'ios,  and 
Oelos  may  be  Oetos  ( cf .  §  4  c).  The  et  of  '  Apyeios  may  always 
form  two  syllables.  The  evidence  of  rhythm  and  etymology 
indicates  Xoeaev  rather  than  Xovaev.  See  §§  18  l,  29  g. 

§  7.  Synizesis.  a.  Vowels  which  do  not  form  a  true  diph¬ 
thong  may  be  blended  in  pronunciation  into  one  long  sound: 
’A rpeihew w  w ,  6eoei8ea  T  27,  8)  avre  A  340,  rj  ovk  diets 

a  298,  gt)  aXkoi  8  165,  irokios  B  811,  Alyvirriovs  8  83,  T erri- 
atav  B  537  (in  which  last  three  examples  t  must  have  had 


40 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  7,  6. 


very  nearly  the  pronunciation  of  its  cognate  y-sound,  §§  5  77, 
41  o  y,  as  omnia  is  often  disyllabic  in  Vergil),  co  dpiyvwre  p  875. 

'w' 

The  genitives  in  -eco  are  always  pronounced  with  synizesis 
(§  16  <?),  as  also  pgecov  and  vgecov  and  regularly  Jjgeas,  crtyeas, 
and  the  genitive  plural  in  -ecov  (§  16  cT).  %peco  is  always  a 
monosvllable. 

1).  Synizesis  often  served  the  purpose  of  the  later  contrac¬ 
tion  :  pgewv  did  not  differ  in  metrical  quantity  from  ggwv. 
It  enabled  the  poet  in  certain  cases  to  escape  the  combi¬ 
nation  _  w  _  ( [amphimacer )  which  cannot  be  received  un¬ 
changed  into  dactylic  verse  (§  41  a'). 

c.  Contraction  and  synizesis  were  employed  in  the  last 
foot  of  the  verse  more  freely  than  elsewhere. 

cl.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  original  form  of  the  poems 
synizesis  was  not  so  common  as  in  our  texts;  e.g.  instead  of 
Thfkrjuiheo)  ’AycX/^o?  A  1,  YlrfkrjidBa  kt\.  may  have  been 

spoken.  For  vglv  gev  6eol  Botev  A  18,  vggt  6eol  gev  kt\.  has 

been  conjectured,  and  ’Ez waXtw  /3poro(f)6vTrj  for  ’E vvaXuo  dv- 

Bpeityovrr)  B  651.  For  BevBpew  etye^ogevot  T  152,  the  Alex¬ 
andrian  scholar  Zenodotus  read  BevBpet  ktX.  (cf.  the  Attic 
plural  BevBpeat).  For  II pXelBrj  e6eX'  A  277,  probably  TLgXetBr] 

6eX'  should  be  read,  although  the  poet  elsewhere  uses  eOeXco 
not  OeXco. 

§  8.  Crasis  is  not  frequent.  It  is  most  common  in  com¬ 
pounds  with  7r po,  as  7 rpovc^acve  t  145,  n rpov^ovro  y  8,  which 
however  may  be  written  i rpoecfyatve,  irpoeyovTO  a :tX.  Note 
also  rovve/ca  A  291,  coptaro^  O  384  (o  apccrro?),  govtos  E  396, 
raWa  y  462,  ^rjget^  B  238  (/cal  ?;yaet?),  ovgos  0  360. 

§  9.  Hiatus  is  allowed 

a.  After  the  vowels  t  and  i/,  as  ey^et  ogvoevrc  E  50,  re?  Be 
(TV  €(7(7  i  Z  123. 

b.  When  the  two  vowels  between  which  it  occurs  are  sep- 


§  10,  C.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


41 


arated  by  a  caesura  (rcadr/crro  eirtyvdpt^\raaa  A  569)  or  by  a 
diaeresis  (§  40  It)  :  seldom  (54  times)  after  the  first  foot 
(. avrap  6  eyvw  A  338),  more  frequently  (96  times)  after  the 
fourth  foot  (ey^ea  o^voevra  E  568).  This  hiatus  after  the 
fourth  foot  is  more  frequent  in  the  Odyssey  than  in  the  Iliad. 
Hiatus  between  the  short  syllables  of  the  third  foot  is  al¬ 
lowed  nearly  as  frequently  as  in  all  other  places  together, 
more  than  200  times.  This  freedom  of  hiatus  emphasizes 
the  prominence  of  this  caesura,  §§  10  e ,  40  d . 

c.  When  the  final  vowel  of  the  first  word  is  long  and 
stands  in  the  accented  part  of  the  foot  (§  39  c),  as  tw  ae 
fcatcr)  alar]  A  418.  See  §  41  o  £. 

d.  When  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  loses  part  of  its  quan¬ 
tity  before  the  following  vowel  (§  41  o),  as  ttjv  K  iyco  ov 
\vaco  A  29,  fjii]  vv  rot  ov  ^pala/iy  A  28.  Here  the  final  and 
initial  vowels  may  be  said  to  be  blended.  This  is  called 
weak  or  improper  hiafus;  it  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
following. 

e.  When  the  last  vowel  of  the  first  word  is  already  elided, 
as  ptvpt  ’Ayatot?  a\ye  eOrjicev  A  2.  See  §  10  e. 

f.  Hiatus  before  words  which  formerly  began  with  a  con¬ 
sonant  (§§  12  l,  14)  is  only  apparent. 

g.  The  poet  did  not  avoid  two  or  more  concurrent  vowels 
in  the  same  word,  §  6.  But  these  vowels  all  seem  to  have 
become  concurrent  on  Greek  soil  by  the  loss  of  consonants. 

§  10.  Elision,  a.  d  (in  inflectional  endings  and  in  dpa 
and  pa),  e,  l,  o  may  be  elided,  at  is  sometimes  elided  in  the 
verb  endings  -ptat,  -aat  (except  in  the  infinitive),  -rat,  -aOat, 
and  once  in  o^eiat  A  2T2.  ot  is  elided  seven  times  in  pot, 
three  times  in  rot,  once  in  aot  A  1T0  (unless  ovhe  aot  otco  or 
ov  aot  otco  should  be  read  there  for  ovSe  a ’  otco). 

b.  to,  7 rpo,  dvrt,  rrept,  rt,  and  the  conjunction  ort  do  not 
suffer  elision  ;  or  is  for  ore  (either  the  temporal  conjunction 
or  the  relative  6  with  re  affixed,  §  24  q),  r  for  re  or  rot. 

c.  t  is  seldom  elided  in  the  dative  singular,  where  it  seems 
originally  to  have  been  long. 


42 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  10,  d. 


d.  Oxytone  prepositions  and  conjunctions  lose  their  accent 
in  elision ;  other  oxytones  throw  the  acute  accent  upon  the 
preceding  syllable:  rear  ap  e^ero  A  101,  but  \ei>K  oarea 
a  161,  elp C  ’O&vcrevs  l  19. 

e.  Elision  tends  to  unite  the  two  words  between  which 
it  occurs;  hence  it  is  avoided  at  the  caesura  of  the  third 
foot,  where  hiatus  seems  to  be  preferred  to  elision.  Hence, 
also,  the  poet  does  not  avoid  the  hiatus  which  sometimes 
remains  after  elision,  §9  e,  g. 

f.  Elision  is  not  left  to  the  reader  as  in  Latin  poetry.  In 
the  best  Ms.  of  the  Iliad  (Ven.  A),  the  elided  vowel  was 
sometimes  written  over  the  preceding  consonant,  and  where 
the  elided  vowel  bore  the  accent,  a  grave  accent  was  placed 
over  the  preceding  vowel. 

§  11.  Apocope,  a.  Before  a  consonant,  the  short  final 
vowel  of  apa  and  of  the  prepositions  dvd,  Kara,  irapd,  may 
be  cut  off  QdiroKoirip  diroKorcrw).  The  accent  is  then  thrown 
back  upon  the  preceding  syllable  (although  it  might  be  more 
rational  to  consider  it  lost  as  it  is  in  elision). 

1».  After  apocope,  the  v  of  dvd  and  r  of  Kara  follow  the 
usual  rules  for  consonant  changes :  dyKpegacracra  a  440,  dgire- 
rraXdov  T  355,  dXXe^ac  321  (^dvaXe^ad) ,  dy^rjpdvy  347 
(^dva^Tjpdvrp),  Kd/3j3a\€v  E  343  (^KareftaXev) ,  KaS  Se  ( Kara  Se) 
frequently,  KoXXore  \  279,  KaKrave  Z  164  ( KareKrave ),  Kair- 
rrecrerrjv  E  560,  Kappe^ovaa  E  424,  Kaaropvvcra  p  32  ( Kara - 
crropvvaa ),  Kair  fd\apa  H  106. 

c.  diro  suffers  apocope  in  dTTTregyjrei  o  83 ;  cf.  Latin  ab. 

d.  vtto  suffers  apocope  in  v/3/3d\\€iv  T  80 ;  cf.  Latin  sub. 

e.  avepvaav  A  459  is  explained  as  derived  by  apocope,  as¬ 
similation,  and  vocalization  of  p,  from  dvd  and  pepvw:  dvf  - 
pvcrav,  dpepvcrav,  avepvaav,  cf.  Kavd^aus  Hesiod  Works  666 
(^Karapa^aif).  For  this  apocope  cf.  Kacr^eOe  (^Karea^eOe)  A 
702,  and  dgvdaeL  Pindar  Pyth.  IV  54  Qdvagv'pcrei)  ;  for  the 
vocalization  of  p,  see  §  14  j. 


§  12,  «.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


43 


f.  Apocope  was  no  mere  metrical  license ;  it  seems  to 
have  been  common  in  the  conversational  idiom  of  some  dia¬ 
lects.  A  Megarian  peasant  is  made  to  say  (Aristophanes 
Acharnians  732)  ap(3aT€  iror  tclv  pdBBav  for  avd/3ar€  i tot l 
(7 rpo?)  rrjv  pa^av,  where  the  poet  is  certainly  imitating  the 
manner  of  the  common  people,  dpfibbcrcn ?  (dvaftopcras')  is 
found  in  Herodotus  I  8,  apiravecrOcu  Hdt.  I  182,  dpj3o\d8r)v 
Hdt.  iy  18 1.  More  striking  examples  of  apocope  and  assimi¬ 
lation  than  any  in  Homer  are  found  in  prose  inscriptions,  as 
dr  rds  for  curb  rfi?,  It  tol  for  €7TL  TOU ,  7TO/C  KL  for  7 TOTi  KL 
(7 rpo?  Tt),  irep  rovvveovv  (§  24  ra)  for  7 repl  rcovBecov,  in  a  Thes¬ 
salian  inscription  of  214  B.C.,  found  at  Larissa.  Of.  itot  rov 
6ebv  kclt  irdrpLCL  BcSovrcov  in  a  Delphian  inscription  of  380  B.C. 
Apocoije  was  the  rule  in  the  Thessalian  and  Boeotian  dia¬ 
lects. 


CONSONANTS  AND  CONSONANT  CHANGES. 

§  12.  a.  Where  collateral  forms  appear,  one  with  single 
and  the  other  with  doubled  consonants,  the  form  with  two 
consonants  is  generally  the  older  or  justified  etymologically, 
as  7 rocrcTL,  7 toctl  (from  ttoB-ctl)  ,  veiKecrcre,  veiKeae  (yelKos,  vec- 
/cecr-),  07T7T&)?  (o/c/rco?,  cf.  Latin  quis  etc .),  ottl,  kt\. 

b.  Single  initial  consonants,  especially  X,  p,,  v ,  p,  cr,  are 
often  doubled  (as  p  is  in  Attic)  when  by  inflexion  or  compo¬ 
sition  a  short  vowel  is  brought  before  them  (see  §  41/  a),  as 
iWiacrero  Z  45,  eppaOov,  ivvvrjro 9,  ecrcrvo,  07r7rco?,  ottl. 

c.  But  sometimes  p  is  not  doubled  where  it  would  be  in 
Attic,  as  epe^a  8  352  (§  25  p),  dpeKTOv  T  150,  coKvpow  E  598, 
OvpopaicrTewv  2  220. 

d.  Palatal  and  lingual  mutes  often  remain  unchanged  be¬ 
fore  p,  as  aKa^pevos,  bhprjv,  tBpev,  KeKopvO ptvos. 

e.  Lingual  mutes  are  commonly  assimilated  to  a  following 
c,  as  7 roaal  (ttoB-ctl).  a  is  sometimes  assimilated  to  p  or  vi 
eppevai  ( elvcu )  for  ia-pevaL,  evveire  a  1  tell  for  ev-aeire  (Lat. 


44 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  12,/ 


insece ),  apyevvos  ivliite  for  dpyea-vos,  as  dpyevvdwv  F  19*,  ev- 
vvyi  for  feor-vvyi  (§  14  a)  cf.  ecrcra  S  253,  ipavvpv  r\  18  lovely , 
ipe(3evvp  E  659  dark ,  cf.  ’Epe/3o9.  (7/  the  aorist  ocfoeXXeie v 

(3  334  for  btyeXcreiev.  See  §4/*. 

f.  cr  is  frequently  retained  before  cr,  as  eacroyai,  ereXecrae. 

g.  Between  y  and  X  or  p,  (3  is  sometimes  developed  (cf. 
the  Attic  yeapy^pia  from  year/  pyepa,  and  chamber  with  Latin 
camera ),  as  ay(3poros  from  stem  ypo  or  yop  (Latin  mors , 
morior ),  while  in  (3poros  mortal  and  vv%  d/3p6r7]  E  78,  the  y 
of  the  stem  is  lost;  yey/3X(OKe  from  yXo  or  yoX  (cf.  eyoXov), 
while  in  7 rpoftXdocnceLv  cfo  239,  the  y  of  the  stem  is  lost;  yey- 
(3Xero  <f>  516  from  yeXco  l  20 ;  py(3porov  II  336  (cf.  ayapre 
£ 116  and  d(3pord^oyev  K  65). 

li.  tcdy(3aXe  is  found  occasionally,  as  £172,  in  the  Mss.  as 
a  variant  reading,  a  softer  pronunciation  for  rcdf3/3aX€  (§  11  b ). 

i.  A  parasitic  r  appears  in  7TTo\t?}  TTToXeyos  for  7 roXi?,  7 ro- 
Xeyos.  Of.  St^Od,  Tpiyfd  with  Attic  (olya,  rplya, — y 6aya - 
Xos  (humilis)  with  yayai  (humi).  The  form  7 ttoXls  is  found 
-in  Thessalian  and  Cyprian  inscriptions,  and  was  also  Arca¬ 
dian.  The  proper  names  Neoytolemus  (NeoTTroAe/xo?)  and 
Ptolemy  (Hr oXe yaws')  preserved  this  t  to  a  late  period. 
TA?77 rroXeyos  is  found  in  an  ancient  Boeotian  inscription ;  in 
this  word  r  could  not  have  been  inserted  metri  causa. 

j.  Certain  words  were  losing  their  initial  consonants  in 
the  Homeric  age:  cf.  yucpos  y  296  with  cryucpfjcn  P  757,  ves 
o  556  with  avs  t  439,  tcehacrOevres  B  398  with  a/ceSacrev  P  649, 
£ vviovTes  A  446  with  avvLTrjv  Z  120,  hovirricrev  A  504  with 
iyhovTrrjcrav  A  45  and  epihovir(p  y  399  with  epiyhoviros  H  411. 

k.  For  y  see  §  14. 

1.  Yod  (j  pronounced  as  y)  occasionally  retains  the  force 
of  a  consonant  in  irjyi  (§  25  h)  and  generally  (37  times)  in 
postpositive  cos  i.e.jcos  (§  41  m),  which  seldom  leaves  the  pre¬ 
ceding  syllable  short.  The  constant  position  of  cos  after  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies  marks  the  lengthening  as  a  relic  of 
an  earlier  age.  But  perhaps  this  postpositive  w?  was  fcos . 


§  14,  a.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


45 


m.  The  rough  breathing  (Ji)  has  no  power  to  prevent  eli¬ 
sion  or  weaken  hiatus.  The  smooth  breathing  is  found  with 
several  words  which  have  the  rough  breathing  in  Attic,  as 
agges  (fgelf),  r/gap  ( ijgkpa ),  aXro  (from  aWogac ),  ?;eXto? 
(r/A .lof),  ’A1S77?  (vA lStjs'),  i)d>$  (ect)?).  See  §  4  f. 

n.  The  v  movable  was  written  by  some  ancient  critics  ( e.g . 
Aristarchus)  after  the  ending  -ec  of  the  pluperfect,  as  /3e/3\ g- 
fC€LV  E  661,  gvcoyetv  Z  170;  cf.  igcnceiv  T  388  (J)cnceev).  It  is 
freely  used  before  consonants  to  make  a  syllable  long  by 
position  (§41  It). 

o.  The  final  cr  of  adverbs  is  omitted  more  often  than  in 
prose ;  not  merely  ef  and  etc,  ourco?  and  ovrco,  but  also  i rco? 
and  7 too,  'ttoWcucls  and  7 roWdtcL  (and  similar  adverbs  in  -/a?, 
even  with  elision,  rocrcrd y’  vScop  aTroXecrtcer  X  586),  drpegas 
and  drpega,  gecrcrgyv 9  and  getragyv,  ge^pcs  and  ge^pc,  a^pi<; 
and  a^pi,  agents  and  dgf>L  (adverbial),  are  found  as  collateral 
forms. 

§  13.  Metathesis  of  a  and  p  is  frequent :  tcapSig  B  452, 
fcpaSlr]  a  353 ;  Odpcros  a  321,  Opdcros  (once)  3  416  (while  the 
adjective  is  always  Opacrvf)  ;  redpros  S  415  (/ cdpnaroL  A  266), 
tepdro?  A  509.  Cf.  eSpatcov  from  Sep/cogao,  eSpadov  from  Sap- 
6dvw,  ejrpaOov  from  7 repOw,  rpaireiogev  T  441  from  repirw, 
Tepirucepavvo 9  from  rpeirw. 

For  the  shifting  of  quantity  from  -do  to  -eco,  see  §  5  d. 

§  14.  The  Digamma,  a.  The  following  words  seem  to 
have  been  pronounced  by  the  Homeric  poet  more  or  less 
consistently  with  initial  digamma  ( van ,  f,  pronounced  as 
English  w)  :  — 

ayvvgL  break,  as  E  161  ;  cf.  (.a  fa,  da yeg  X  575. 

aXi9  enough ,  as  v  136,  B  90. 

aXwvat  be  captured ,  as  M  172;  cf.  eTw,  Aeolic  evdXaiKev  (see 
j  below).  Also  etXco press,  as  II  403,  from  the  same  root. 

avaf  king,  as  A  7  and  often. 

avSavu)  please,  as  /3  114  ;  cf.  eaSov  and  iyvSave  [caj/Save]  y  143. 


46 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  14,  a. 


apaios  thin ,  as  %  411. 
apvos  lamb,  as  A  158. 
aa-Tv  city ,  as  T  245  and  often. 

e,  ou,  ot  7iim  etc .,  as  A  510,  with  the  possessive  pronoun  os,  y,  ov 
(eo's  kt/\.)  ;  see  h  below. 

cap  Spring ,  as  r  519  ;  c/.  Latin  ver. 

eSi/a  wedding -gifts,  as  X  472,  perhaps  from  the  same  root  as 
dvSdvo). 

Wvos  tribe ,  as  £  73. 

eiKocn  twenty ,  as  B  510  ;  c/.  Latin  viginti. 

ctKto  yield,  as  £7 roeiKew  Y  266  ;  c/.  English  iveak,  weaken. 

etpoo  say,  future  epeco,  as  A  182  ;  c/.  Latin  ver-bum ,  English  word. 

£K as jfar,  as  E  791  ;  c/*.  peXrrovres  eiedepyov  A  474. 

eKao'ros  each,  as  B  449. 

cKvpos  father-in-law,  as  T  172;  c/.  German  Schwiegervciter. 
eKiov  willing,  as  Z  523  ;  c/i  aeKcov,  ae/ayri,  deKa^opievos. 
eXf  winding,  as  a  92. 

eXrris,  eXrro  pat,  hope,  as  7 r  101  ;  c/*.  eoXrra,  deXrrTeovres. 
evvvpn  (fea-vvp,  t)  ,  iaOt'js,  elpara,  clothes,  as  T  392;  c/*.  Latin 
vestis. 

eVos  word,  as  A  652  ;  c/*.  eeurov  ft- p error,  §  25  7i),  and  of  with 

Latin  vox. 

epyov,  epbo)  work,  as  B  436  ;  cf.  the  English  word. 

ipvd),  eppo),  draw,  go,  as  8  367  I  cf.  dr rdepae. 

earrepo s  evening,  as  p  191  ;  cf.  Latin  vesper. 

ero s  year,  as  a  16  ;  cf.  Latin  vetus. 

eij  six,  as  E  270. 

err] s  companion,  as  H  295. 

t)8v<s  sweet ,  as  A  17  ;  cf.  dvSdvu)  and  Latin  suacleo,  suavis  ( sucul - 
vis) . 

yOos  haunt,  as  £  411  ;  cf.  eTmOe. 
id^o)  cry  aloud  as  8  454  ;  cf.  j  below. 

ISetv  see,  as  A  262  ;  also  618a,  eT8os.  Cf.  Latin  video,  English  wit. 

LeeXos,  eoLKo.  am  like ,  as  A  119. 

lov  violet,  as  €  72  ;  cf.  Latin  viola. 

is,  Tfi  strength,  sinew,  as  4'  191  ;  cf.  Latin  vis. 

Taos  equal,  as  A  163  ;  cf.  eiaos. 


§  14,  e.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


47 


t tvs  felly,  as  A  486  ;  cf.  English  witlie. 

oLcos  house ,  as  a  232  ;  c/.  Latin  vicus ,  English  TFa?*-w?cfc,  Rer- 
icick,  etc. 

otvos  wine,  as  r  300  ;  c/.  Latin  vinum  and  the  English  word. 

b.  It  is  probable  that  ypa  (£7 rl  rjpa  (f^epcov  A  572),  ’4Mo?, 
and  Hpt?  also  were  pronounced  with  initial  f. 

c.  dvSavw,  e,  e/cvpos,  ef  and  others  seem  to  have  begun 
originally  with  two  consonants,  ap. 

d.  The  verse  alone  affords  no  sufficient  criterion  for  the 
former  existence  of  p  in  any  word ;  it  only  indicates  the  loss 
of  some  consonant.  This  is  not  conclusive  evidence  for  p, 
since  a  and  j  (y)  were  also  lost.  Which  consonant  origi¬ 
nally  was  present  has  to  be  learned  in  each  case  from  inscrip¬ 
tions  of  other  Greek  dialects,  from  a  few  notes  of  ancient 
grammarians,  and  from  other  cognate  languages  (cf,  epyov 
work,  ohos  wine). 

Rem.  The  Alexandrian  scholars  did  not  know  of  the  existence 
of  p  in  the  Homeric  language,  and  consequently  they  did  not  use 
it  to  explain  peculiarities  in  the  Homeric  text.  The  great  English 
scholar  Richard  Bentley  (1662-1742)  was  the  first  to  discover  that 
its  restoration  removed  many  difficulties  of  Homeric  prosody. 

e.  The  sound  of  p  evidently  was  going  out  of  use  in  the 
Homeric  period ;  it  is  not  infrequently  neglected  in  our 
texts  and  sometimes  this  neglect  seems  to  be  due  to  the  poet 
himself,  but  p  can  be  restored  in  many  passages  by  minor 
changes  :  /ceSva  iSvia  (ptSvla)  has  been  restored  for  the  Ms. 
reading  /ceSv  eiSvla  a  428.  For  vlov  e/cr)/3o\ov  A  21  it  is  pos¬ 
sible  to  read  via  pe/crj/36Xov,  for  ?}/3?/cr?7  re  teal  rjs  /crX.  a  41  it 
is  easy  to  read  r)/3ricrr)  real  pr)s,  and  rracnv  Se  pavdacrecv  for 
7 rdvreaai  8’  dvdcraeiv  A  288.  For  eirraeres  S’  ipvaacre  y  304, 
eirraeres  S'  edvacrcre  may  be  read  (§  25  i ).  pevos  6vpov  re 
pe/cacrrov  may  have  been  jthe  original  form  of  pevo?  /cal  Ovpov 
e/ederrov  E  470.  avrovs  Se  eXcopca  A  4  became  avrovs  S'  e\Xd>- 
pta  in  many  Mss.  oi  pev  olvov  a  110  is  now  read  where  the 


48 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  14,/ 


Mss.  have  ol  pe v  ap ’  olvov.  As  the  Alexandrian  grammarians 
and  the  copyists  had  no  knowledge  of  this  lost  letter  in 
Homer,  they  were  solicitous  to  fill  each  hiatus  b}r  a  v  mova¬ 
ble,  p  (pa),  r  (re),  y  (ye),  or  whatever  other  addition  or 
change  suggested  itself,  ov  av  y  dyecs  p  576  is  jirobably 
for  ov  crv  f  (/e)  ayet^,  and  09  a^ei  H  154  for  09  y’  d£et 
(§  41  q). 

f.  y  was  less  constantly  preserved  in  derivative  than  in 
primitive  words :  olvos  generally  retains  its  y,  but  Olvoyaos 
E  706  has  lost  it;  dpvos  preserves  its  y  four  times,  but  dpveios 
shows  no  trace  of  it. 

g-.  It  has  been  computed  that  y  in  Homer  assists  in  mak¬ 
ing  position  359  times  (only  in  the  accented  part  of  the  foot 
or  else  before  the  third  personal  pronoun  —  before  ev  once, 
before  the  enclitic  ol  39  times),  but  prevents  hiatus  2995 
times  (2324  of  which  are  after  a  short  syllable,  in  the  unac¬ 
cented  part  of  the  foot).  The  force  of  y  is  neglected  about 
600  times  in  ordinary  texts  (about  half  of  which  passages 
can  be  readily  changed  to  restore  y). 

li.  In  later  poets,  e.g.  in  the  elegiac  poets  and  Pindar,  y 
seems  never  to  make  position  but  often  prevents  hiatus,  — 
poetic  precedent  allowing  hiatus  before  a  word  which  for¬ 
merly  began  with  y.  The  consciousness  of  the  consonantal 
initial  sound  of  ol  was  retained  longest  and  most  clearly. 
Before  that  word,  110  attempt  was  made  to  fill  a  hiatus  by  v 
movable  or  by  ody  for  on,  and  before  it  a  short  vowel  was 
often  long  by  position  (§  41  m'). 

i.  That  the  sound  of  y  was  still  alive  in  the  Homeric  age 
is  shown  by  the  accuracy  of  the  poet  in  its  use  where  com¬ 
parative  philology  shows  that  it  once  existed. 

j.  y  sometimes  leaves  a  trace  of  its  existence  in  its  cognate 
vowel  v :  evahev  H  340  for  efaSev,  avepvaav  A  459  for  dpepv- 
aav  (§  11  e),  aviayoi  N  41  for  dpia^oi  (a  privative  and  yta- 
^7;),  raXavpivov  E  289  for  raXd-  fptvov.  So  doubtless  dirovpas 
A  356  for  diro-ppas.  Of.  the  Pindaric  avdrav,  Pyth.  11  28, 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


49 


§  15,  a.] 

for  afarav ,  and  evcSov  Sappho  II  7  for  efc&ov.  This  latter 
evtSov  may  have  been  pronounced  often  where  our  Homeric 
texts  have  eiacSov,  as  eacSev  seems  not  infrequently  to  have 
been  substituted  for  efi8e v. 

Some  irregularities  of  quantity  may  be  explained  by  this 
vocalization  of  p.  Thus  dir  dear  dv  T  35  may  have  been  diro- 
penroov  pronounced  nearly  as  dirovearcov.  aviayoi  finds  its 
analogy  in  y  ever 5  layf)  A  456  (jyeveroviayrf) . 

k.  A  neighboring  vowel  is  sometimes  lengthened  to  com¬ 
pensate  for  the  loss  of  p  (§  41  d'). 

l.  An  e  was  sometimes  prefixed  to  a  digammated  word  and 
remained  after  the  p  was  lost,  as  eeXScop,  eel/cocn,  eepyet,  ee. 

m.  Sometimes  the  rough  breathing  represents  the  last 

remnant  of  a  lost  consonant  (especially  in  the  words  which 
once  began  with  o-/r,  as  dvSavco  kt\.,  cf.  c  above),  as  e/cco v, 
eWepo?.  Often  the  same  root  varies  in  breathing,  as  dvSavco 
and  but  —  evvv/u ,  but  eaOrf. 

n.  For  the  augment  and  reduplication  of  digammated 
verbs,  see  §  25  h. 

o.  For  SpecSco,  hprjv,  see  §  41,  j  /3. 

DECLENSION. 

§  15.  Special  Case  Endings,  a.  The  suffix  -(fn(y),  a 
remnant  of  an  old  instrumental  case,  added  to  the  stem  forms 
a  genitive  and  dative  in  both  singular  and  plural.  It  is  gen¬ 
erally  used  as  an  instrumental,  ablative,  or  locative  case. 
The  suffix  is  most  frequent  in  set  expressions  and  in  the  last 
two  feet  of  the  verse. 

1st  Declension,  always  singular :  ef  evvfjfav  from  the  couch , 
with  his  own  might,  dvprjcfn  at  the  door. 

2d  Declension :  etc  irovro^nv  out  of  the  sea ,  haicpvcxfu  ivith 
tears ,  err  evy^apofiv  on  the  hearth.  The  final  o  of  the  stem 
always  receives  the  acute  accent. 

3d  Declension,  only  with  a  stems  except  vavcju,  and  tcorv- 
\7]8ovo(fn  (which  has  gone  over  into  the  2d  declension),  and 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


50 


[§  15,  b. 


always  plural  except  Kpdreacfn  K  156:  Ik  argOea^iv  from  the 
breasts ,  opeacfyiv  on  the  mountains . 

b.  Many  of  these  forms  are  found  only  where  they  are 
convenient  for  the  verse ;  e.g.  vaiufri  always  stands  for  vgcov, 
not  for  vrjvcrl  which  has  the  same  metrical  form  as  vavtyi. 

c.  This  ending  is  not  used  with  designations  of  persons, 
except  avrocfu  T  255,  T  140,  6e6(f)Lv  as  H  366. 

d.  The  suffix  -9l  is  added  to  the  stem  to  denote  place 
where :  6vpg6i  at  the  door ,  o'ljcoOl  at  home ,  KgpoOo  at  heart ,  ttoOl 
where ,  kcWl  there  (i/cei  is  not  Homeric),  i)m9l  in  the  morning. 

e.  The  suffix  -6e v  is  added  to  the  stem  to  denote  place 
whence :  'IBgOev  from  Ida ,  ovpavoOev  from  heaven.  It  forms 
a  genitive  with  the  pronominal  stems  ege,  ae,  e,  auro :  igedev, 
aeOev,  e6ev,  avroOev.  Sometimes  a  preposition  is  used  with 
it,  as  a\o6ev  d>  335,  drrb  T poigOev  t  38,  eQev  eive/ca  T  128, 
7 rpo  e6ev  E  96.  When  affixed  to  adverbial  stems,  it  may  lose 
its  final  v :  oirLaOe,  civevOe,  TrdpoiOe,  evepOe. 

f.  This  ending  -6ev  has  lost  its  original  force  in  certain 
adverbs ;  €’771;?,  e’77 v0l,  eyyvOev  do  not  differ  essentially  in 
meaning;  cf.  evBov,  evBoOi,  evBoOev, —  7 rpoaOev,  oiricrOev,  kt\. 
The  Aeolic  form  of  the  ending  appears  in  viratOa  <$>  493  from 
under. 

g\  The  enclitic  -Be  is  added  to  the  accusative  to  denote 
more  distinctly  the  limit  of  motion :  ol/covBe  homeward  (also 
oi/ca&e,  especially  of  the  return  of  the  Achaeans  to  their 
homes)  ovBe  BogovBe  to  his  own  house,  dXaBe  seaward,  k\l- 
algvBe  to  the  tent ,  T poigvBe  to  Troy.  So  also  ’A iBocrBe  to  the 
abode  of  Hades ;  cf.  ggerepovBe  ( sc .  Bcoga)  to  our  house,  ei$ 
’AiSao.  With  TlgXeuovdBe  Q  338,  cf.  eis  ’ Ayagegvova  H  312. 
Cf.  in  oKAvBls,  dgvBns,  ^agaSis,  -£e  in  epa^e  to  the  earth, 
dvpa^e,  yaga^e.  (fivyaBe  to  flight  (for  (fivyrjvBe  which  is  not 
used)  is  formed  as  from  a  noun  of  the  third  declension. 


§  16.  First  Declension,  a.  rj  is  found  for  final  a  of 
the  stem  with  the  exceptions  mentioned  in  §  5  a  f. 


§  17,  c.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


51 


b.  The  nominative  singular  of  some  masculines  ends  in 
-rd  for  -T7] 9 :  al^grjTa  spearman,  gr/rlera  counsellor .  Cf.  the 
Latin  poeta,  nauta.  evpvoira  far- sounding  (perhaps  a  petrified 
nominative)  is  used  also  as  accusative,  e.g.  A  498. 

All  of  these  words  are  adjectival  ( titular )  except  Svecrra 

B  107. 

c.  The  genitive  singular  of  masculines  ends  in  -do  or  (by 
transfer  of  quantity,  §  5  c?),  -eco.  After  a  vowel  this  ending 
may  be  contracted  to  -co :  evggeXlco  A  47,  Alvelco  E  584,  B opeco 
"T  692.  The  ending  -eco  is  always  pronounced  as  one  syllable 
by  synizesis  (§  7). 

d.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  -awv  or  - ewv :  Oeacov,  /3ov- 
Xecov.  After  i  this  ending  may  be  contracted,  as  n rapecwv  II 
794.  After  a  long  syllable  (i.e.  everywhere  except  in  7 rvXecov 
H  1,  M  840,  and  Ovpecov  <£  191)  synizesis  of  -ecov  occurs,  as 
vavrecov. 

e.  The  dative  plural  ends  in  -gcrcQu')  or  rarely  in  -779,  as 
OvprjcrLv,  7reTpr)s,  —  in  -ai 9  only  in  three  words :  deals  e  119 
(cf.  6ea  §  5  a),  d/crals  M  284,  it  derail  %  471. 

f.  The  short  form  of  this  dative  ending  is  rarely  used 
before  a  consonant;  when  it  stands  before  a  vowel,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  final  l  has  been  elided. 

§  17.  Second  Declension,  a.  The  genitive  singular 
has  preserved  the  old  ending  -to  which  affixed  to  the  stem 
vowel  makes  -010. 

b.  According  to  tradition  this  ending  does  not  suffer  eli¬ 
sion;  but  elision  is  metrically  possible,  e.g.  hvaogevov  'Tirepl- 
ovos  a  24  might  be  Svaogevoc  'TvrepLovos.  See  §  7  d. 

c.  The  termination  -00  is  indicated  by  the  metre  in  certain 
places  where  all  the  Mss.  give  a  corrupt  form :  o^LreXecrrov 
00  /cXeos  ov  7 tot  oXelrcu  B  325,  TloXvcfrrigov  60  /cpdros  icrrl  ge- 
yiarov  a  70,  d&eXcpeoo  efrpevas  r/pcos  H  120,  TXtoo  irpoirdpoide 
X  6,  A I0X00  geyaXijropos  k  36.  It  is  to  be  recognized  also 
in  IleTewo  B  552  for  Ileredoo,  from  IleTC&A  for  IIeTedo9.  It 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  17,  d. 


was  probably  far  more  common  in  the  original  form  of  the 
poems ;  e.g.  'OAvgv riov  dOpooc  a  27  might  be  ’ OXygirco ’  ddpooi. 

The  Attic  ending  -ov  is  more  common  in  the  received 
texts. 

For  the  loss  of  c  in  the  change  from  -oto  to  oo,  see  §  5  g. 

d.  The  genitive  and  dative  dual  end  in  -ouv :  toIlv,  cogouv. 

e.  The  dative  plural  ends  in  -outl(v)  or  -ots.  As  in  the 
first  declension  (§  16/)  the  long  ending  is  the  rule,  the  short 
ending  is  very  rare  before  a  consonant. 

f.  7 aXoto  X  473  (nom.  pi.),  ’A 6oco  8  229  (gen.  sing.),  and 
K owv  8  255  (acc.  sing.)  belong  to  the  so-called  Attic  Second 
Declension.  But  Homer  uses  Xao9,  ^7709,  /caXo9,  Aaycoos  for 
Xeoo9,  re&>9,  ktA. 

§  18.  Third  Declension,  a.  The  ending  1  of  the  dative 
singular  is  sometimes  long,  as  in  Latin,  and  sometimes  short. 
It  is  seldom  elided.  It  is  often  long  before  a  single  conso¬ 
nant,  as  KvpcrTL  %a\rc€Ly  A  640,  gi)Ti  S’  pvioyos  "T  318 ;  it  is 
always  long  in  Su<£tXo9,  A Cl  ggrcv  drdAavro<;,  cf.  virepgevel 
c plAov  B  116,  Kpdrec  ge  H  142.  So  before  words  which  once 
began  with  p,  as  dvSpl  bceAr/  A  86,  retcei  c6  S  175  ;  cf.  Ad  co 9 
B  781  (§  12  V).  It  preserves  its  length  before  a  vowel  in 
ev  $67 tcll  ocppa  D  285. 

b.  The  genitive  and  dative  dual  are  very  rare ;  perhaps 
only  TTohouv  "T  770,  A eiprjvoav  g  52,  167. 

c.  The  dative  plural  has  the  Aeolic  ending  -ecrai(v')  as  well 
as  the  Attic  -<xt(F) :  iroheacn,  ttoctctl  (§  12  e),  ttoctl, — /3eXe- 
ecrcTi  (for  fiekecr-ecrcrC),  (3eAecrcri,  fieAecn,  —  dvSpecrcn,  dvhpdai ,  — 
Ovyarepeacn  (Attic  OvgarpdcrC),  —  /cAaiovrecrcTi  (Attic  kAcll- 
oucrt), —  Kvv€o-<ji,  kvctl.  aireacTL  from  ct7T609  is  irregular;  it 
can  be  written  everywhere  cnreecn.  Sometimes  -crat  is  used 
after  a  vowel,  vefcvcrcn  as  well  as  veKvecrai.  As  the  examples 
show,  sometimes  one  a  is  dropped,  but  -eat  for  -ecrcn  (as 
dvdtcrecnv  o  557)  is  not  frequent.  The  forms  in  -eaai  are 
always  accented  on  the  antepenult.  * 


§  IB,  *.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


53 


d.  Forms  with  -ecrat  have  replaced  occasionally  in  the 
Mss.  forms  with  -cri,  as  OeXyeatc  iireeacriv  y  264  for  deXyea/ce 
peireacnv  (§  14  a,  e ),  dyavols  /3eXeecrcnv  y  280  for  ay  avoid  i 
fteXecrcnv  (§  IT  e ). 

e.  yeXcos,  6p&)9,  t8pcos  have  no  stems  with  t,  but  form  dat. 
yeXcp,  6/363,  t8pw,  acc.  yeXco  (or  yeXov),  epov,  i8pco.  y^p 039  has 
^/3009,  X/300  %/3oa,  but  also  ^pcoros  K  5T5,  xpoifj  S  164,  ^ptora 
a  172. 

f.  70m),  Secrpios,  86 pv,  adpr\,  ov 9  (which  probably  should  be 
written  oa9,  from  oua 9),  irpoacoirov  all  have  forms  from  r- 
stems :  yovvaros  (70137/09  A  547,  t  450),  yovvacri ,  8eo-pLara,  806- 
paros,  8ovpan,  8ovpara,  8ovpacn  ktX.  fccipr/  has  four  sets  of 
inflexions:  (1)  fcdprjTO 9,  /cdpr/n, —  (2)  aapijaros,  Kapyjart,  aa- 
ppara,  —  (3)  tcpdaros,  apaan,  /cpdara,  — •  (4)  aparos,  apart, 
fcpara,  aparcov,  apacrtv.  apyjOev  is  used  as  its  genitive  IT  548, 
adp  as  accusative  singular  II  392.  All  the  oblique  cases  of 
ov 9  are  formed  from  the  stem  ovar-,  except  coo-tv  pi  200. 

it p  6  cr  coir  ov  has  irpocrcoirara  a  192,  irpocrcoiracrL  H  212. 

g.  Several  stems  in  -l8  form  the  accusative  singular  in-a ; 
yXav/cd>m8a  0  373,  yXav  avoir  lv  a  156  ;  civdXai8a  0  153,  dvaX- 
atv  7  375,  epi8a  E  861,  eptv  7  136.  Of.  puianya  E  226,  piderrev 
o  182,  Attic  opvtOa,  opviv. 

h.  Nouns  in  -7 jp  have  both  syncopated  and  unsyncopated 
.  forms :  irarpos,  irarepos  (irarpoov  8  687),  dv8pos,  dvepos. 

i.  Nouns  in  -09  and  -<*9  generally  remain  uncontracted. 
-609  is  rarely  contracted  to  -609,  as  Odpcrev 9  P  573  (’O&no-efc 
co  398).  Of.  cucparj  Qdapaea)  /3  421,  A Lopu'fea  A  365. 

j.  The  a  of  a  few  stems  in  -as  is  weakened  to  e :  ov8eos, 
ov8€l  from  ov8as,  acoecnv  from  acoas  fleece.  In  the  plural  the 
final  a  is  short  in  yepa,  as  B  237. 

k.  F  orms  of  aXeos  and  adjectives  in  -aXr/s  are  contracted 
in  the  Mss. :  aXea  dv8pcov  I  189,  evaXelas  K  281,  8vcraXea 
B  115,  daXea  8  728;  cf.  virep8ea  P  330. 

l.  It  is  probable  that  the  true  reading  is  aXee  dv8pcov  (the 
trisyllabic  can  everywhere  be  substituted  for  the  anomalous 
disyllabic  form),  8vaaXee  Apyos ,  daXee  etc  pueydipcov. 


54 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  18,  m. 


m.  Proper  names  compounded  with  /eXeo9  are  inflected 
thus:  N.  f3lrj  'Hpa/c\7]€L7]  (periphrasis  for  'Iripa/cXerjs  which  is 
metrically  impossible,  §  2  $),  G.  'Hpa/cA^o?,  D.  H pa/cXip,  A. 
'H  pa/cXrja. 

n.  Probably  the  77  or  eu  of  the  nouns  in  -09  and  -a?  should 
be  resolved :  anrelovs  may  always  be  written  cr7reeo9,  an rpeaai 
may  be  anreeeaai  ( anreea-eaai ,  see  c  above),  Belovs  may  be 
Seeos,  evppelos  may  be  evppeeos,  fcpeioov  may  be  /cpedcov,  dya- 
/cXrjos  may  be  dyarcXieos,  dtcXelccs  may  be  dicXeews,  H pafcXrys 
may  always  be  'HparcXeeos,  etc.  See  §  6  i. 

o.  Nouns  in  -00  and  -cos  are  contracted  in  the  Mss.  This 
may  be  a  conformation  to  Attic  usage.  Generally  it  is  pos¬ 
sible,  and  often  it  is  rhythmically  better,  to  write  e.g.  goa  Slav 
rather  than  7)6)  Slav  (§  39/). 

p.  Nouns  in  -is  and  -u?  usually  retain  t  or  v  throughout, 
but  in  its  stead  may  insert  e  which  is  sometimes  lengthened. 

q.  7 roXt?  is  inflected  thus :  nroXios,  n roXrjos,  7 roXet,  nroXirji 
r  50,  nroXiv,  7 roTue?,  n-oXrjes,  7 roXlcov  nroXleaai,  nroXias,  nroXr/as 
(p  486),  7roXet9* 

r.  Nouns  in  -evs  generally  lengthen  e  to  77  in  compensation 
(§  41  d')  for  the  v  which  between  two  vowels  becomes  p  and 
is  lost,  as  /3aaiXevs,  ftaaiXrjos.  Forms  with  e  are  found  in 
proper  names :  Tu8eo9  B  406,  T vBea  Z  222,  'OBvaevs  co  398 
(once)  for  'OBvaeos- 

s.  17771)9  (Attic  vav 9)  is  inflected  thus :  777709,  veos,  vr\i ,  vrja 
(yea  only  1  283  and  doubtful),  vrjes,  vies,  vrjcov,  vecov,  vav<f>i, 
vijeaai,  veeaai,  vrjval ,  vr/as,  via 9.  The  forms  with  77  are  the 
most  frequent. 

t.  vAp779  has  ,;Ap77  and  ''Apijv  (E  909)  of  the  first  declen¬ 
sion  ;  and  ''Aprjos,  ’A pgi,  ” Aprja  as  from  ’'Ape 09  (the  Lesbian 
form  of  5'Ap779,  cf.  the  Attic  genitive  ’Apeo^).  With  these 
latter  forms  may  be  compared  conversely  the  dialectic  col¬ 
lateral  forms  in  -779  of  Epic  proper  names  in  -6179,  as  ''Opcfrrjs 
(’Opc^eiA),  T 1)877 9  (TuSeiA),  from  which  were  borrowed  the 
Latin  Ulixes ,  Achilles ,  etc. 


§  19,/] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


55 


ANOMALOUS  FORMS. 

§  19.  a.  As  verbs  appear  in  the  present  system  with  a 
variety  of  collateral  forms  derived  from  the  same  root  (cf. 
Ilk co,  iKavco,  CKveofiat, —  irevOopLac,  irwOdvopiai, —  p,evco,  pilp^vco, 
/jufiva^w^),  so  nouns  of  different  declensions  are  sometimes 
formed  from  the  same  root  and  are  used  without  appreciable 
difference  of  meaning. 

b.  Some  nouns  have  both  vowel  and  consonant  stems : 
d\K7j  r  45,  but  oXkl  E  299 ;  acrrpa  ©  555,  but  dcrrrjp  Z  295  ; 
ydcrrpjjv  S  348,  but  yaar/jp  £  133 ;  ey^ecrj  H  261,  but 

H  254;  ipiTjpos  eralpo ?  A  266,  but  epirjpes  eralpoc  F  378; 
r)VLo^o<;  A  280,  but  rjvLO'xfjes  E  505 ;  Icokij  E  740,  but  IwKa 
A  601 ;  (pvXaKovs  O  566,  but  (f>v\aKas  K  97 ;  cf.  Attic  Trarpo- 
(frovos  with  7 rarpocf)ov7]a  a  299,  rrc^v8aKpvov  P  192  (for  which 
however  7 roXvSaKpvos  is  conjectured)  as  genitive  of  7roXu- 
haKpvs  (cf.  8aKpv6-€c< ;  X  499)  with  iroXv8aKpvv  T  132,  7 toXli)- 
tcls  B  806  with  7 roXcTcu  Tj  131. 

c.  pLCLcrTL  "T  500  and  pidanv  0  182  are  collateral  with  fid- 
o-Tiyi  E  748  and  fidartya  E  226;  so  also  verbs  are  found 
from  both  stems :  pudane  P  622,  pudcrn^ev  E  366. 

d.  Of  u/09,  three  stems  are  found:  (1)  vios,  vlov,  vie.  The 

other  forms  of  this  declension  are  very  rare ;  vlov  ^  238,  vl(p 
IT  177.  (2)  vieos,  vlei,  vlea  (only  N  350  in  Homer,  frequent 

in  later  poets)  kt\ .,  as  if  from  vlv<;  which  occurs  on  Spartan 
and  Arcadian  inscriptions,  with  vv$  on  an  early  Athenian  in¬ 
scription.  (3)  vlos,  vie,  via,  vie,  vle<;,  vldcn,  vlas,  as  from  a 
nominative  vU. 

In  this  word  the  first  syllable  is  sometimes  short  (§  5  <7), 
as  it  often  is  in  Attic  and  in  other  dialects. 

e.  So  also  some  proper  names  have  forms  of  both  vowel 
and  consonant  stems :  XWLO'irrja^  A  423  and  AWioiras  a  23 ; 
’Az m^arpa  k  114  and  ’A vri(f>dTr)<;  o  243  ;  TlarpoK\rjo<;,  Tlarpo- 
K\rja,  YlarpoK\eis,  as  well  as  YldrpoK\os,  TlarpoK\ov  kt\. 

f.  ’AtS?;?  has  ’A i8ao,  ’A ISeco,  but  also  'fAi8os,  VA l8l  as  if 


56 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  19,  g. 


from ’'At?  (’At'8-).  Of.  Ol8i7r68ao  A  271  with  the  Attic  geni¬ 
tive  OISl7toS-o ?.  A  collateral  form  of  ’A  18779  is  'A'iBcovevs 
T  61  with  dative  ’A iScovrjt,  E  190. 

g.  Zeo?  has  Z 77^0?,  Zrjvl,  Zrjva,  or,  at  end  of  the  verse,  Zrjv, 
as  well  as  A  to?,  A  tt,  A  la. 

li.  ^ap7T7]Scov  has  'Zap7T7)86vo<;  II  464,  liapirphovTos  M  379. 

i.  /ceXevOo?  and  /cn/cAo?  are  sometimes  neuter  in  the  plural. 
So  vevpi]  has  vevpa  A  122,  irXevpp  has  i rXevpd  A  468. 

j.  Certain  names  of  cities  are  found  in  both  singular  and 
plural:  ’ AOijvrjv  77  80  but  ’A Opvas  B  546;  M v/cyvr)  A  52, 
M vfcpvas  B  569;  Qr/pf)  E  543,  db ypa?  I  151;  ©77/^77?  A  378, 
©77 /2a?  E  804.  Cf.  MdXeiav  t  80,  M aXeidoov  y  287.  Instead 
of  the  later  plural  ©ecr7rtat,  HXarcuai,  Homer  uses  only  the 
singular :  (deairecav  B  498,  TlXarcuav  B  504. 

ADJECTIVES. 

§  20.  a.  Some  adjectives  of  three  terminations  are  used 
as  if  of  two  terminations,  i.e.  the  masculine  form  is  used  also 
for  the  feminine :  lcf)6[gov^  A  3,  /cAuro?  rliriro8dpieia 

B  742,  dyptov  arrjv  T  88,  oXocdtcltos  o8gg  8  442  where  oAoeo- 
r cittj  was  metrically  possible,  rjepa  ttovXvv  E  776,  8€ivo$  ayrr) 
O  626,  dcrirctcnos  yrj  233,  Oeppub?  dvrpip  pu  369,  n^Aoto  77 pia- 
Ooevros  B  77,  i)Xr)evTL  Za/cvv6(p  a  246  but  vXyecraa  ZcucvvOos 
1  24,  aAo?  iroXioio  T  229  but  dAo?  TroXifjs  4?  59. 

b.  Compound  adjectives,  on  the  contrary,  often  have  a 
feminine  form  :  d8pLrjrr),  dOavdn 7,  dpLcjneXiaarj,  dpifyjXr],  dcr(3e- 
(jt 77,  elvaXlr/,  ev^ecrT 77,  7roXvgvr)crT7j,  7roXvcf)6pl3rj. 

c.  The  feminine  of  adjectives  in  -o?,  ends  in  -eui  (gen. 
-6^779),  -ea  (§  5  p),  or  rer)  (§  5  b):  ftaOela,  fidGetr)?, —  ooKea, 
—  / SaOerjs ,  {3a0er]v. 

<1.  enpn?  has  acc.  sing.  masc.  evpea  (in  connection  with 
atoAtto?  and  7 rwro?)  as  well  as  evpvv. 

e.  e’6?  good  has  gen.  sing.  £>709,  gen.  plur.  edcov.  But  for 
67709,  the  Alexandrian  critic  Zenodotus  wrote  eolo  (possessive 
pronoun)  which  is  perhaps  a  better  reading. 


§  21,  c.J 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


57 


f.  7ro\v<;  (ttovXvs)  has  in  the  masculine  and  neuter  both 
stems  7 roXv-  (7 tovXv-)  and  7roXXo-  (for  7 toXvo-,  §  19  «),  with 
a  nearly  complete  set  of  forms  for  each :  7roXXo9  and  7 roXXov, 
7roXeo9,  7ro\669j  7 roXecov,  TToXecrcn,  7 roXecn,  TroXeecrcn,  rroXeas, 
with  all  the  Attic  forms  except  ttoXXov. 

g.  nrpecrfivs  has  feminine  irpecr^a  (as  from  Trpecrfiosf  irpo- 
<f)po)v  has  feminine  irpo^paaaa,  Oovpos  has  feminine  OovpA. 

PATRONYMICS. 

§  21.  a.  Suffixes  which  originally  expressed  connection 
or  possession  were  used  to  form  patronymic  adjectives.  The 
original  force  of  these  suffixes  is  occasionally  preserved : 
( Oeol )  Ovpavicoves  A  570  is  a  mere  adjective  of  connection 
like  ( Oeolcnv )  eirovpavioicTi  Z  129;  Homer  does  not  recognize 
Ovpavos  as  the  ancestor  of  the  gods.  'QXvg7ria8e<;  govcrac  B 
491  is  equivalent  to  govcrai  ’OX itgirca  Scogar  eyovaai  B  484. 

I>.  The  importance  which  the  Homeric  Greeks  attached  to 
a  son’s  connection  with  his  father  is  not  only  indicated  by 
the  frequent  use  of  patronymics  as  proper  names  (as  ’A rpel- 
Stjs  A  T,  M evoLTiahr]  A  307,  before  the  names  Agamemnon , 
Patroclus ,  had  been  mentioned),  but  is  shown  also  by  Iv  68  f. 
where  in  great  fear  Agamemnon  bids  his  brother  to  rouse 
the  warriors  7 rarpoOev  etc  yeveig  ovoga^oov  avhpa  etcaarov  \  irtiv- 
t«9  Kvhaivcov,  as  in  their  great  extremity  before  Syracuse 
Nicias,  encouraging  the  Athenians,  roov  rpirjpap-^wv  eva  etca- 
crrov  avetcaXeu,  irarpoOev  re  ovoga^cov  teal  (ftvXrjv  Thlic.  YII  69. 
When  a  stranger  was  asked  who  he  was,  he  gave  his  own 
name,  that  of  his  father  and  that  of  his  country ;  as  a  man’s 
official  name  at  Athens  included  that  of  his  father  and  that 
of  his  deme  (7 rarpoOev  teal  rov  8pgov  ov  etcacrros  ean  to  ovo- 
ga) ,  e.g.  Ar/gocrOevr 79  Ar/gocrOevovs  YlaLavcevs  Demosthenes ,  son 
.  of  Demosthenes ,  a  Paeanian. 

A.  c.  The  patronymic  is  formed  from  stems  of  the  1st 
declension  by  adding  -8a- :  Wpyea8rjv  n  417,  Avy rjcaSao  B 
624,  T7T7roTd£?79  tc  2,  or  more  frequently  by  adding  -ia8a- : 


58 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  21,  d. 


AaepnaBrj^  F  200,  ’ Ay^LcnaSrj^  296,  in  which  the  final  a  of 

the  stem  is  lost. 

d.  This  analogy,  giving  an  ending  in  -Ld&rjs,  is  followed  by 
stems  in  -io  of  the  2d  declension  :  M evoLrtdBrjs  I  211.  So 
also  by  stems  of  the  3d  declension :  II gXrjidBeco  A  1  (as  well 
as  II rjXetSrjs  S  316,  II rjXetcova  A  197),  AaopeBovTidBgs  O  527, 
AlTjfcio-TTjid&Tjs  Z  28,  even  ’O iXiaBrjs  II  330  from  ’CfiXeu?-  See 
j  below. 

e.  The  suffix  -iBa-  is  added  to  stems  in  o,  and  the  o  is  lost 
as  in  d  above:  KpoviSgs, — also  to  stems  in  ev,  which  lose 
their  v  between  two  vowels  (§  5  g)  :  ’A rpeLSgs  A  7,  —  also  to 
consonantal  stems,  as  ’A yagegvoviBrjs  a  30.  A evKaXcSgs  (Aeu- 
/caXlBao  M  117)  is  formed  as  from  A evrcaXos,  instead  of  from 
A ev/caXiwv,  and  ’ AvOeglBrj<;  A  488  as  from  ,rA vOegos  rather 
than  from  'AvOeglwv  (’A vOegiwvo^  vlov  A  473).  Possibly 
A ev/caXos  was  a  short  form  of  A evtcaXlcov,  as  a  comrade  of 
Achilles  is  called  sometimes  ’A Xtagehafv  (II  197,  P  467),  but 
sometimes  ’'AX/a/xo?  (T  392,  O  474),  and  AeufcoXocfros  Aris¬ 
tophanes  Frogs  1513  is  the  same  person  as  Aeu/coXoc/uTb;? 
Plato  Protag.  315  e.  Of.  'EpuvOevs  (fLpuvdev  A  39)  for  'S.puvOo- 
(pdopos  and  e/caros  for  e/caTr)/36Xos  (§  4  c). 

f.  Patronymics  from  stems  in  -ev,  after  the  loss  of  the  v, 
do  not  in  Homer  suffer  contraction  of  the  e  of  the  stem  with 
the  l  of  the  suffix.  The  poet  says  ’A rpetBrj^,  ’A rpetcov,  as 
tetrasyllables  not  trisyllables.  The  verse  ictus  never  falls  on 
the  ei. 

g.  Female  patronymics  are  formed  by  the  suffix  -i&-  which 
loses  S  before  the  nominative  sign  :  XpvaglSa  (acc.  of  Xpv- 
arjlp)  A  182,  B puarjiha  A  184,  XrjpglSes  S  38,  daughters  of 
Kerens,  TpaudBcov  2  122,  daughters  of  Tros ,  A aphaviBxuv  12  122, 
daughters  of  Dardanus,  as  the  Trojans  are  called  AapBarico- 
ves  H  414.  ’A^au&e?  B  235  corresponds  to  /covpoc  ’A -^accov 
A  473. 

B.  h.  Patronymics  are  formed  also  by  the  suffix  -too-  ; 
K  P  oviwv  A  528  (with  genitive  IXpovtcovos  or  lApoviovos,  cf. 


§  22,  «.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


5$ 

§22  &),  ’A Tpetwv,  II gXetwv.  In  these  last  forms  from  nouns 
in  -eu?  the  i  is  always  short. 

i.  The  corresponding  female  patronymic  is  found  in  ’A Sprj- 
<7tlv7]  E  412,  ’ A/cpio-LGovrp ;  319  (gen.  of  'A KpLcncovr))  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Acrisius. 

j.  T aXaiovlSao  B  566  is  irregular ;  it  seems  to  be  formed 
by  a  cumulation  of  suffixes  from  T dXaos,  cf.  ’HeA/ou  fT7 repco- 
vlBao  g  176.  So  A ao/xeSovrcaSr]^  (Aao gebovr Labrj  T  250)  is 
formed  from  A aogebovrios  which  itself  appears  as  a  patro¬ 
nymic  (in  the  form  Aagebovnos)  in  a  Boeotian  inscription ; 
cf.  Aaogebovrte  i ral  Eur.  Troad.  822.  A bz?  T eXagcovidbr]^ 
"T  838  appears  to  have  the  same  formation  when  compared 
with  TeXagcovios  A l'a<?  'E  842. 

Conversely,  for  A evKaXibrj^  instead  of  Aev/caXcovlb? see  e 
above. 

k.  Some  adjectives  in  -to?  are  used  as  patronymics,  as  TeAa- 
ficovLOS  A <a?  B  528.  Cf.  Uoidvriov  vlov  7  190,  T eXagcovie  irai 
Soph  Aj.  134,  K povcG  7ral  Pind.  01.  II  12.  This  formation 
appears  constantly  on  Thessalian  and  frequently  on  Boeotian 
inscriptions.  Cf.  the  nomina  gevitilicia  of  the  Romans. 

l.  The  patronymics  in  -3???  are  far  more  numerous  than 
those  in  -icov ;  the  former  are  found  in  Homer  708  times;  the 
latter,  148  times. 

m.  The  patronymic  is  sometimes  derived  from  the  grand¬ 
father’s  name  :  Achilles  is  called  A5z/a3?7?  B  860;  Priam,  A ap- 
bavtbrj<;  T  303;  the  two  grandsons  of  Actor, ’A/croptWe  B  621. 
Thus  in  later  poetry,  Heracles  is  called  Alcides  (’A X/cet3?;?) 
from  Amphitryo’s  father  ’AX/cato?  or  ’AX/ceu?. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

§  22.  a.  Comparatives  and  superlatives  end  in  -lwv,  -caros 
more  frequently  than  in  Attic:  fipabvs,  /3dpbcaro<;, —  fdpdcr- 
<twv  probably  from  fipa^vs,  —  yXv/cvs,  yXvKLcov,  —  /ca/co?,  ica- 
klcov  as  well  as  fca/ccbrepos,  —  (£tAo?,  (faXicov  as  well  as  <piXre - 
po?,  </>/XtO.T09, - Gt)/CV<?,  to/CUTTOS  aS  Well  as  GOKVTarOS. 


60 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  22,  b. 


b.  Some  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  formed  from 
noun  stems :  (3acnXevTepos  I  1G0,  /SacriXeuraro 9  I  69,  Oedorepai 
v  111,  Kovporepoicn  A  816,  vvvrepov  0  483,  kvvtcltov  K  503, — 
alaylcov,  alcr^iaro^  (atcr^o?),  dXyuov,  dXyiaro^  (aXyos) ,  eXey- 
% lctto 9  (eXey^os) ,  vepdiov,  vepdiaro 9  (fcepSos) ,  rafiicrTos  (/cr/Sos) , 

KvdujTO^  (/cOSo?),  pbTjKiCTTO^  (piT/KOs),  pLCUCpOTGpOS ,  pLCLfCpOTCLTOS , 

piyiov,  ply  taro 9  ( plyo 9). 

c.  In  some  comparatives  in  -repo?,  there  is  no  thought  of 
a  greater  or  less  degree  but  of  a  contrast,  as  dyporepdcov 
{ppuovwv)  B  852  of  the  field ,  as  opposed  to  the  town  ;  dgXv- 
repcu  (y  waive  9)  0  520,  female ,  as  opposed  to  male  ;  opeVrepo? 
(hpdvaov)  X  93,  of  the  mountain ,  as  opposed  to  the  valley. 
Cf.  fjgerepos,  vgerepos,  Setfirepos  and  apurrepo 9  right  and  left. 

d.  From  adverbs  are  formed:  dy^LcrTos  (acraov,  daaorepcofi 
dfidprepos,  irapolrepo 9,  7 rporepos,  virepraTos. 

e.  dyaOos  has  comparatives  ape  1  gov  (cf.  dpicrTos),  (3eXrepov , 
Xgolov,  Xcolrepov. 

f.  dvirjpo 9  has  a  comparative  dvigpearepov  (3  190. 

g\  I'eo?  has  a  superlative  vearat  I  153,  veiarov  B  824. 

h.  7roXv$  has  a  comparative  7 rXeloov  or  TrXecov  and  in  the 
plural  also  7rXee?  A  395,  irXeas  B  129. 

i.  fiaeivos  has  a  comparative  fiaeivorepos,  a  superlative 
<f)advTaros  v  93  (for  cpaevraro^,  cf.  cfidavOev  A  200  for  e(f>d- 
evOev). 

j.  go  is  found  where  the  Attic  rule  would  require  o,  in 
vavotfeivoorepos  v  376,  Xaphoraros  (3  350,  oUfvpoorepov  P  446. 

k.  The  t  of  -iGov  is  regularly  short  as  (puXicov  r  351  ;  cf. 
the  occasional  l  of  the  patronymic  in  -lgov,  §  21  h. 

NUMERALS. 

§  23.  a.  evl  has  a  collateral  form  leg  Z  422;  cf.  the  femi¬ 
nine  forms  I'd  A  437,  079  II  173,  if)  I  319,  lav  £  435. 

7 rpcoro?  has  a  collateral  form  tt  poor  bar  09,  cf.  tt  dgir  poor  09 
H  324. 

Of  the  compound  ov&els  (ovS*  649),  besides  ovBev,  only  ov - 


§  23,  {.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


61 


Sei >i  is  used  (twice,  X  459,  X  515) ;  from  is  found  only 

fiTjSev  S  500. 

b.  Svco,  Svo  is  indeclinable  ;  it  has  the  following  collateral 
forms :  Socco,  Solol,  Socal,  Sold,  5cao£?,  Solovs. 

Sevrepos  has  a  superlative  Sevraro^;  last  of  all ,  while  Sevre- 
po<?  has  the  comparative  ending  as  the  latter  of  two. 

c.  Tplros  has  a  collateral  form  rplraros,  cf.  gecrcraTO 9  with 
p-ecrcro?. 

d.  recrcrapes  has  a  collateral  form,  the  Aeolic  iricrvpes,  O  680. 
Its  ordinal  is  rerparos,  by  metathesis  (§  13)  for  rerapro?. 

e.  oktgo  has  the  ordinals  oySoaros,  oySoo?.  In  rj  261,  £  287, 
oySoov  seems  to  have  been  substituted  by  error  in  all  the 
Mss.  for  oySoarov. 

f.  evvea  has  the  ordinal  etvaros  (few /zto??),  emro?. 

g.  ScoSefca  has  the  collateral  forms  Svc ohe/ca  and  SvoKalSefca. 
b.  evevrjKovra  B  602,  has  a  collateral  form  ivvij/covra  r  174, 

with  which  may  be  compared  evp/covra  on  an  inscription  of 
Drymaea  in  Phocis. 

i.  pivpla  is  not  yet  used  as  a  numeral  for  10,000,  but  only 
for  a  countless  ( indefinitely  large)  number. 


62 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  24,  a. 


PRONOUNS. 

§  24.  I.  Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns,  a. 


Sing.  N. 

>  /  5  / 

eyoo,  eyoov. 

ad,  tvvt)  (6  times). 

G. 

ifJL€?0,  6/460  (K  124), 

cre7o,  aeo,  crev ,  (TeOev, 

eTo  (A  400,  x  1^), 

6/460,  /4eo,  efieOev. 

t eoto  (0  37). 

60,  60,  6060. 

D. 

i/Ltoi,  flOL. 

cr oi,  TOi,  re 'iv  (5 
times). 

oT,  60?  (N  495,  8  38). 

A. 

>  /  / 

6yU€,  /Ll€ . 

/ 

(T€. 

6, 46'  (r  171,  n  134), 

fJ.LV. 

Possessive. 

6/40S  (e/47],  6/4 do). 

ads,  reds. 

os,  eds. 

Dual  N.  A. 

van,  vdo  (as  Acc.,  E  219, 

0  475). 

(T(pd>l,  acpU). 

(T(p  0)6. 

G.  D. 

van v  (as  gen.  only  X 
88). 

(T(pU)lV,  (T(p(pv  (5  62). 

acpwtv. 

Possessive. 

vaolrepos. 

aepoo'iTepos. 

Plur.  N. 

rjfi e?s,  ajj.fj.es. 

0/46 7s,  VjJ.jJ.es. 

aepeiaiv  (4  times), 

G. 

rjfie'icov  (4  times),  rj/xe- 

o/4eicoo  (4  times), 

crepe o)o  (4  times), 

uv  (9  times). 

v/j.ewv  (5  times). 

o-<£>o)o  (M  155,  T 
302). 

D. 

7]fUV,  ’hjALV,  &fifu(v). 

0/440,  0/440,  tjjj.jj.1. 

( T(pl(Tl[v ),  acf)'l(v). 

A. 

7]fj.eas ,  Tf/Lias  ( it  372), 

'd/j./j.e. 

vjj.eas,  v/j./j.e. 

a  (peas,  acpas  (E  567), 
c T(pe  (5  times). 

Possessive. 

7]fj.erepos ,  a/4 6s  (7 
times). 

vfjerepos ,  vfxds. 

acperepos,  (repos. 

b.  The  oblique  cases  of  and  v/ieis  are  said  to  retract 
their  accent  to  the  first  syllable  when  they  are  unemphatic 
or  when  the  last  vowel  is  short,  as  u  372,  vfiewv  O  494, 
vfjLiv  a  373;  but  this  rule  is  not  observed  constantly  in  the 
Mss.,  and  editions  vary. 

c.  The  oblique  cases  of  the  3d  personal  pronoun  when 
enclitic  are  anaphoric,  like  avrov  kt\.  in  Attic ;  when  ac¬ 
cented  they  have  their  original  reflexive  use,  like  Attic  kav - 
rov ,  efiavrov,  creavTov ,  rcr\.,  which  compounds  are  posthomeric, 
and  are  not  found  even  in  Pindar. 

ix'iv,  crcp we,  crcpcoLv,  cr(f)L,  crcfxis,  and  a<p6  are  always  enclitic. 


§  24,  i.  j 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


63 


(1.  The  Aeolic  forms  cigges,  afi/ie,  v/ifies,  vyye  generally 
might  stand  in  the  text  for  gyas  kt\.  So,  also,  perhaps 

ayyos  and  vyyos  should  be  written  for  the  possessive  forms 
ayu,09,  uyao?,  to  bring  them  into  correspondence  with  the 
Aeolic  personal  pronouns. 

e.  For  the  relation  of  the  form  eyeio  to  e’yae'o,  of  aeto  to  ceo, 
kt\ .,  see  §  5  g. 

f.  609  seems  to  stand  for  aeFos  suus  (cf.  the  old  Latin 
soils').  Its  use  is  not  confined  strictly  to  the  third  person; 
it  means  simply  oivn  (cf.  1810$,  only  twice  in  Homer,  from 
the  same  root),  as  ov  roc  eye o  ye  |  779  (for  eyrjf)  yaii)<$  8vvayai 
yXvrcepebrepov  aWo  I8ea6ai  t  28  I  can  see  nothing  siveeter  than 
my  own  native  land ,  Soogacnv  olcnv  (for  croiaev )  dvdcrcroLs  a  402. 
It  is  with  rare  exceptions  the  possessive  of  ov  in  its  reflexive,, 
not  in  its  anaphoric  signification  (see  0).  As  this  use  of  ov 
became  less  familiar  to  the  Greeks,  it  is  probable  that  other 
words  and  forms  were  occasionally  substituted  for  forms  of 
€09  in  the  text  of  the  poems. 

II.  Intensive  Pronoun.  g\  avro 9  regularly  retains  its 
intensive  force  in  the  oblique  cases,  even  when  not  connected 
with  a  noun  expressed,  often  marking  a  contrast  which  it  is 
difficult  to  render  smoothly  in  the  English  idiom.  Cf.  §  1  li  fin. 

The  presumption  is  always  strongly  in  favor  of  the  origi¬ 
nal  meaning;  but  all  shades  of  meaning  are  found  from  the 
strict  intensive  to  the  simple  anaphoric  use  of  the  Attic  dia¬ 
lect. 

h.  For  avro)?  in  the  sense  of  weravrw 9,  see  j  below.  In 
this  use  it  has  a  large  variety  of  meanings,  as  (acfrpovd  r) 
avrojs  r  220  a  mere  ( simpleton )  ;  without  cause  A  520,  without 
a  prize  A  133,  absolutely  B  138,  vainly  B  342,  without  chariot 
E  255.  Most  of  these  meanings  are  derived  from  in  the  same 
way  as  before ,  the  connection  determining  the  special  sense 
of  each  passage. 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  i.  The  Attic  article  0, 
7),  to,  generally  retains  its  demonstrative  force  in  Homer,  but 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


64 


[§  24,  j. 


like  the  intensive  pronoun  in  the  oblique  cases,  appears  occa¬ 
sionally  in  its  Attic  signification. 

In  their  demonstrative  use,  o,  o/,  al ,  are  best  written  o, 
?),  oi,  ai.  —  to/,  rat,  tw?  are  used  besides  of,  a/,  w?. 

j.  Thus  the  absence  of  the  article  does  not  mark  a  noun 
as  indefinite;  cf.  avbpa  pcoc  evveire  Xlovcra  a  1  with  arm  a  vi- 
rumque  cano.  avrijv  bbov  6  107  is  equivalent  to  Attic 
rrjv  avTTjv  68ov,  and  frequently  aur&>?  is  equivalent  to  Attic 
bocravrws  (cii?  being  the  adverb  of  the  article,  see  k  below  and 
§  38  li)  while  o>?  8'  avrco<;  T  339  is  equivalent  to  Attic  ovrco  8’ 

coaavrw^. 

k.  The  demonstrative  article  is  often  followed  by  a  noun 
in  apposition  with  it,  as  oc  8'  eyaprjcrav  '  Ayato  l  re  Tpcoe?  re 
T  111,  but  these  rejoiced ,  both  Achaeans  and  Trojans ,  avrap  o 
/3ovv  iepevaev  dva £  civ8pwv  Wyapuepivcov  B  402  but  he ,  Agamem¬ 
non ,  king  of  men ,  sacrificed  an  ox. 

l.  The  forms  with  initial  r  often  have  a  relative  force,  but 
refer  only  to  a  definite  antecedent;  this  is  a  relic  of  para  tac¬ 
tic  construction  (§  3  nj,  as  is  particularly  clear  in  dWa  ra 
pie v  ttoXlcov  e^eirpadogev  ra  8e8aarai  A  125  but  what  we  took 
as  spoils  from  the  cities ,  these  have  been  divided. 

m.  roLcrbeacnv  /3  47,  rolcrSecn  cf)  93  belong  to  o8e.  They 
are  analogous  to  the  Aeolic  rcov8ecov  of  Alcaeus  and  to  the 
rovvveovv  (for  rwvewv,  from  ove  =  oSe)  of  a  Thessalian  inscrip¬ 
tion. 

n.  /ceivos  is  often  found  for  ifceivos,  as  the  adverb  /ceWi  for 
eKelOc  (only  p  10),  while  e/ceZ  is  not  Homeric. 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns,  o.  Besides  the  Attic  forms, 
o  is  used  for  6'?,  oov  (better  oo,  §  17  cj  for  ov,  e???  H  208  for 
r)$  (where  for  efis  to  rrpiv,  oo  rpoaOev  has  been  conjectured). 

p.  The  forms  o?  and  6  have  also  a  demonstrative  use,  espe¬ 
cially  o?  with  ov8e,  gife,  teat,  and  yap. 

For  the  relative  use  of  the  article,  see  l  above. 

q.  The  neuter  o  is  frequently  used  as  a  conjunction,  like 
quod.  So  also  on  and  o  re. 


§  25,  «.] 


TI1E  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


65 


V.  r.  The  Indefinite  and  Interrogative  Pronouns 
have  genitive  singular  reo,  rev,  dative  rew,  genitive  plural 
recov ,  dative  reotcn,  neuter  plural  of  the  indefinite  daaa  only 
r  218.  The  stem  of  reo  seems  to  be  distinct  in  derivation 
from  that  of  tAo9  but  identical  in  meaning. 

s.  In  o  Tt?  for  o?  rt9  (cf,  6  for  09,  0  above),  the  first  stem 
often  remains  uninflected;  6  tls,  on  or  om,  orev  or  orreo, 
ore w,  oTiva,  orecov  (wv  rivcov  not  being  either  Ionic  or  dac¬ 
tylic),  oreoidi ,  OTiva,?,  neuter  plural  dcraa  ( ortva  X  450,  but 
corrupt). 

CONJUGATION. 

§  25.  Augment  and  Reduplication,  a.  The  augment 
was  for  a  time  considered  unessential:  whether  temporal  or 
syllabic,  it  may  be  omitted  in  the  Homeric  poems ;  the  ac¬ 
cent  is  then  thrown  back  as  far  as  possible,  as  refine  A  4,  oXe- 
KOVTO  A  10,  defuel  A  25,  /cdOegev  1  72  QrcaOeipiev) ,  avecrav  <3?  587 
( dveicrav ). 

b.  When  the  augment  is  omitted,  monosyllabic  forms  with 
long  vowel  take  the  circumflex  accent,  as  j3rj  for  ej3r). 

c.  Iteratives  generally  have  no  augment,  §  36  a. 

d.  Forms  without  the  augment  are  less  common  in  the 
speeches  than  in  the  narrative.  In  the  narrative,  the  aug¬ 
mented  preterits  are  to  the  unaugmented  as  7  to  10,  but  in 
the  speeches  as  7  to  2. 

e.  The  Mss.  are  frequently  of  less  authority  than  the 
rhythm  of  the  verse  in  determining  whether  a  form  should 

be  augmented :  e.g.  at  the  close  of  the  verse,  —  w,  w - 

(where  the  comma  indicates  the  end  of  a  word)  was  pre¬ 
ferred  to  —  w  w, - ;  hence  dXge  cdr/icev  A  2,  not  dXyea  6?]tcev 

(§  40  7c)  ;  redye  e/ceiro  F  327,  not  redyea  fcelro.  To  write 
eXoopi  erevye  Kvveacnv  A  4,  or  Se  reXeiero  fiovXij  A  5,  would 
create  the  forbidden  caesura  between  the  short  syllables  of 
the  fourth  foot  (§  40  m).  For  the  same  reason  the  augment 
is  omitted  also  when  it  would  interfere  with  the  Bucolic 
diaeresis  (§40  K),  as  gla  <y eivaro  gijrrjp  T  238. 


66 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  25,/. 


f.  After  the  augment,  initial  X,  pc ,  or  a  is  sometimes  doubled 
(in  many  instances  as  the  assimilation  of  an  original  F  or  <x) 
as  well  as  initial  p :  eXXiTcivevcra  k  481,  eXX a(3e  a  298,  cpipcaOes 
cr  362,  eaaeve  A  14T  (see  §  41^  a). 

g.  Sometimes  initial  p  is  not  doubled,  as  ipdirropiev  it  379, 
epe^a  3  352,  epe^e  B  400 ;  cf.  eppvaaro  /cal  ecrdwcrev  O  290 
with  ipvcraro  /cal  icrdwcrev  y  372.  See  §  12  c. 

h.  Stems  which  originally  began  with  a  consonant  may 
take  the  syllabic  augment  or  reduplication,  as  een rov,  erj/ce, 
edyrj,  edXrjv ,  eeXirero,  —  eoi/ca,  eoXira,  eopye,  eeXpueOa  11  662. 
Thus  el8ov  is  for  i-FcS-ov,  eipirov  is  for  i-crepir-ov.  In  epyarai 
k  283,  this  reduplication  seems  to  be  lost,  cf.  iepyaro  /c  241 ; 
so  heyarai  M  147,  ecrcrai  co  250.  In  rjucTo ,  as  8  796,  and  rjei- 
8^?  X  280,  the  7]  is  the  augment  lengthened  by  the  following 
f  (i fuc -  and  fiS-').  See  §  41  d. 

i.  In  the  usual  texts,  many  of  these  verbs  have  the  tem¬ 
poral  augment ;  this  probably  was  not  so  spoken  in  the  origi¬ 
nal  form  of  the  poems,  but  is  a  conformation  to  later  usage. 
5’  eavaacre  is  the  rational,  more  original  form  for  the  Ms.  read¬ 
ing  8’  rjvaao-e  y  304,  av8ave  for  ijvhave  A  24,  idvhave  for  erjvhave 
y  143,  ea%e  for  T1  392,  edXco  for  ijXco  %  230.  See  §  4  h. 

j.  The  second  aorist  active  and  middle,  of  verbs  whose 
stem  begins  with  a  consonant,  is  often  found  with  a  redupli¬ 
cated  stem,  as  i/ce/cXero,  XeXd^wcri,  dpareiraXcov,  iirecppaSe,  Treiri- 
6oLpL7]v,  ererpue,  rerv/covro. 

k.  The  so-called  Attic  reduplication  is  more  common  in 
Homer  than  in  Attic,  and  its  use  extends  to  the  second  aor¬ 
ist  where  the  augment  also  may  be  used  ( cf '.  Attic  i)yayov ),  as 
i)pape,  tf/ca^e,  dXaX/ce,  and  the  peculiar  forms  epv/ca/ce  A  352 
from  epv/cco,  i)vL7ra7re  B  245  from  Ivlittw  in  which  the  final 
consonant  of  the  theme  is  reduplicated  with  a  as  a  connec¬ 
tive  ( ivevLire ,  as  cr  321,  is  found  more  frequently). 

l.  In  the  perfect,  the  vowel  after  the  Attic  reduplication 
is  not  always  lengthened,  as  dXdXypuaL,  while  it  is  never 
lengthened  in  the  aorist  (§  31/). 


§  26,/] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


67 


m.  A  reduplicated  future  is  foi  "led  from  the  stem  of  some 
of  these  reduplicated  aorists,  as  tceKahycrei  cf>  153  from  the 
stem  of  fcefcdhovro  A  497,  TreTnOyerw  X  223,  TrecftiSijcreTai  11  158. 

n.  The  reduplication  of  pepvircopieva  f  59,  hcryaQai  I  402, 
is  not  according  to  Attic  usage.  SeiSe^arai  (from  heitcvvpu), 
8el8oi/ca,  and  BelBia  have  irregular  reduplication ;  probably 
the  last  two  are  to  be  explained  as  for  SeSfoifca,  8e8pia 
(§  4:1  1/3). 

o.  6/ji/jbope  (from  pielpopiai)  and  ecrervpiai  (from  erevco )  double 
the  initial  consonant  and  prefix  e  as  if  they  began  with  two 
consonants  (§  41  j  a). 

J 

§  26.  Endings,  a.  The  singular  endings,  -pu,  -erSa,  -en, 
occur  more  frequently  than  in  Attic;  especially  -pu  and  -en 
in  the  subjunctive,  as  I'Seopu,  dyaycopu,  ideXyen,  fieiXyen.  These 
endings  are  rare  in  the  subjunctive  of  the  contracted  pu- 
forms,  as  Smctl  A  129,  cf)6yaiv  T  805,  yen  O  359. 

b.  -er6a  is  used  three  times  in  the  optative,  as  (3dXoier6a 
O  571 ;  29  times  in  the  subjunctive,  in  12  verbs,  as  eiiryaOa 
T  250,  iraOyaOa  fl  551  ;  8  times  in  the  present  indicative,  in 
five  verbs,  as  efryerda  186. 

c.  In  three  verbs  -tov  is  used  for  -ryv  as  the  ending  of  the 
third  person  dual  imperfect :  ireu^erov  N  346,  Sico/eerov  K 
364,  Xaefnjo-aerov  2  583.  -ryv  would  have  made  an  amphi- 
macer  —  w  —  See  §  41  a . 

d.  The  third  plural  of  the  perfect  active  ends  in  fieri  (for 
-avri)  ;  den  i£  found  only  in  7 reefivteden  rj  114,  XeXoyKeien 
X  304. 

e.  In  the  pluperfect,  the  older  endings  -ea  ktX.  are  pre¬ 
served,  as  ySea  H  71,  ireiroiOea  8  434,  SjeiSys  X  280.  The 
third  singular  ends  in  -ee(z')  or  -eiv,  as  (Beftytceiv  A  221,  y8ee 
B  409. 

f.  The  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  first  aorist 

optative  active  end  in  -eie(v),  as  pieiveias,  tcaXeereiev . 

The  second  person  in  -at?  occurs  very  rarely ;  the  third  per- 


68 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  26,  g. 


son  in  -ai  is  more  common,  as  7 rjOrjcrcu  A  255,  deipai  H  180. 
The  third  plural  with  but  two  exceptions  (/ cycuev ,  Kreplcracev 
12  38)  ends  in  - eiav ,  as  riaeiav  A  42,  d/covcreiav  B  282. 

g.  The  third  plural  optative  active  of  /u-verbs  ends  in  -iev 
(except  crrairjcrav  P  733),  as  eiev ,  Sapieiev,  Solev. 

li.  The  second  singular  imperative  ending  -61  is  retained 
in  some  presents,  as  iXrjOi  7  380,  8iBco0i  7  380,  opiwOi  585 ; 
and  in  some  perfects,  as  reOvaOi  X  365,  rerXaOi  A  586. 

i.  The  third  plural  imperative  ends  in  -tcov,  -crOtov  (never 
- rcocrav ,  -crOwaav),  as  ecrrcov  A  338,  (pevyovrcov  I  47,  Xe^d- 
ctOcov  I  67. 

j.  a.  Active  infinitives  (except  in  the  first  aorist)  fre¬ 
quently  end  in  -pievcu,  which  is  sometimes  shortened  after  a 
short  vowel  to  -piev,  as  epipievcu,  epupiev,  eX  OepLev^au) ,  reOvd- 
pLevQap). 

(3.  The  shortening  of  -pievcu  to  -pie v  occurs  generally  before 
a  vowel,  where  it  may  be  called  elision. 

7.  The  ending  -vat  is  found  only  after  a  long  vowel,  as 
Sovvcu,  SlSovvcu  11  425. 

k.  The  ending  in  -epuev  is  clearly  preferred  to  that  in  -eiv 
before  the  Bucolic  diaeresis  (§  40  li)  ;  even  before  the  diaere¬ 
sis  at  the  end  of  the  first  foot  of  the  verse,  the  ending  -epee v 
could  stand  ten  times  as  often  as  the  ending  -eiv  is  required. 

.1.  The  second  aorist  active  infinitive  in  12  verbs,  and  the 
future  active  infinitive  in  9  verbs,  have  the  anomalous  end- 
,  ing  -eeiv,  which  probably  stands  for  -epuev  or  -eev,  which  may 
be  restored. 

m.  Aorist  passive  infinitives  end  in  -pievcu  or  -vai,  as  Sapn'j- 
pievai  T  266,  Sapirjvcu  T*  578;  pu^Oppievai  A  438,  puyr) pievcu 
Z  161,  pu<yr)vcu  X  306. 

11.  The  perfect  participle  has  the  inflection  of  the  present 
in  fce/cXrf'yovTes  M  125.  See  §  31  <7,  e. 

o.  Some  second  perfect  participles  retain  in  the  oblique 
cases  the  co  of  the  nominative,  as  Te0vr]MTos  a  289,  /3e/3ad)Ta 
e  130. 


§  26,  v.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


69 


p.  The  second  singular  of  the  middle  generally  remains 
uncontracted  (§  6),  as  dSvpecu,  iSi^ac  T  130,  j3d\\eo  A  297, 
wSvaao  a  62,  e/j,dpvao  %  228.  Contracted  forms  are  used 
occasionally,  as  pberarpeTry  A  160,  yvcoai )  B  365,  /ce/cXjcr y  T 
138;  once  in  the  imperfect,  i/cpe^a)  O  18. 

q.  In  the  perfect  middle,  -aat  regularly  loses  its  a ;  but 
p^epiVTjaai  648  is  found  as  well  as  pLepLvrjcu  d?  442,  pLepivr) 
O  18  (for  /, uepLvecra.L,  as  if  from  pLepivopiaL ). 

-cro  retains  its  a  only  in  the  imperative,  as  eWo,  icrTacro. 

r.  The  first  person  dual  of  the  middle  once  ends  in  -pueOov, 
7 repiScop^eBov  T"  485  (cf.  XeXelpbpbeOov  Soph.  El.  950,  6ppid>pLe6ov 
Phil.  1079)  but  the  metre  would  admit  irepuhoopLeOa  with  hia¬ 
tus  at  the  Bucolic  diaeresis  (§  9  b'). 

s.  The  first  plural  middle  often  ends  in  -p,ecr0a  (which  is 
found  also  in  the  tragic  poets),  as  IfcopLecrda  y  61. 

t.  The  third  plural  of  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  indicative 
middle  often,  and  of  the  optative  middle  always,  ends  in 
-arac,  -aro  for  -vtcu,  - vro ,  as  SeSalarac  a  23,  i re(fx)/3paT0  <t>  206, 
y evolaro  a  266.  Before  these  endings,  smooth  labial  and 
palatal  mutes  are  aspirated,  as  opcope^Tat  II  834  from  opeyco, 
rerpdcjyaro  K  189  from  rpeirco. 

Attic  prose  writers  use  these  endings  sporadically  in  the 
perfect  and  pluperfect ;  but  the  tragic  poets  use  this  ending 
only  in  the  optative  (as  yvcocrolaro  Soph.  O.  T.  1274,  cf.  Ajax 
842,  El.  211 ;  Se^alaro  0.  C.  44,  cf.  945 ;  cf.  also  Oelaro 
Aesch.  Suppl.  665). 

u.  S  seems  to  be  inserted  in  the  forms  d/c^eSarac  P 
637  (d/cay /£&)),  e\7]\eSaro  rj  86  (eXawco),  eppdSarai  v  354 
( paivopiai ).  These  forms  probably  came  from  collateral 
verb-stems  which  contained  S ,  cf.  pdacrare  u  150  ( palvo - 
/xai  for  paZvj  &)). 

For  eXrjXehaTo,  Dindorf  and  Nauck  read  the  less  anomalous 
form  eXrjXearo,  La  Roche  reads  eXrjXd^aro. 

v.  The  third  plural  indicative  of  the  aorist  passive  gener¬ 
ally  ends  in  -ev  instead  of  -ycrav  (46  forms  in  -ev  to  15  in 


70 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  26,  w. 


-rjcrav),  as  gyepOev  A  57,  tydavOev  A  200,  rpdcfrev  A  251,  hterga- 
yev  A  531. 

w.  Similarly,  v  is  used  for  the  later  -aav  in  the  imperfect 
and  second  aorist  of  /at-verbs,  as  %vvcev  A  273,  ecrrav,  arav, 
e(3av,  ecfivv  e  481,  er\av  O  608. 

For  the  optative  ending  of  pu-ve rbs,  in  - Lev  not  -Lycrav,  see 
g  above. 

§  27.  Subjunctive  Mode.  a.  The  variable  vowel  (“con¬ 
necting  vowel  ”)  of  the  subjunctive  is  generally  short  in  the 
first  aorist,  second  aorist  of  /u-forms,  second  aorist  passive, 
second  perfect  of  primitive  formation,  as  fipcrogev,  dyeLpopcev, 
logev,  Oetogev,  rpaireiopiev,  Sapbelere,  eihopuev,  ireTroiOopuev. 

This  short  vowel  is  found  before  the  endings  -gev,  -tov,  -re, 
and  in  middle  forms. 

b.  A  few  forms  of  the  first  aorist  have  a  long  vowel  fol¬ 
lowing  the  analogy  of  the  present,  as  SpXycnjTai  T  107. 

c.  There  are  no  certain  examples  of  the  short  mode-vowel 
in  the  present  of  verbs  in  -w.  (For  (3ov\ercu  dvridcras  A  67, 
/9ouA?/t’  dvTidcra ?  may  be  substituted,  etc.') 

Hem.  The  forms  of  the  first  aorist  subjunctive  are  easily  con¬ 
fused  with  those  of  the  future,  with  which  they  are  identical  in 
appearance. 

§  28.  Optative  Mode.  a.  For  the  optative  endings,  see 
§  26  5,/,  g,  t. 

b.  After  l  or  u,  the  optative  sign  disappears:  hcuvvro  H 
665,  hvrj  a  348,  ifchvgev  IT  99,  XeXvvro  cr  238,  ^>digrjv  k  51, 
c pOtTO  \  330,  Saivvaro  cr  248. 

c.  aXcfroiev  is  contracted  to  dXcfroiv  v  383. 

§  29.  Contract  Verbs.  I.  a.  Verbs  in  -aw  exhibit  un¬ 
changed,  assimilated,  and  contracted  forms ;  the  poet’s  choice 
between  contracted  and  uncontracted  forms  seems  to  have 
been  determined  largely  by  the  rhythm.  The  vowels  are 
regularly  contracted  when  the  second  is  in  a  short  syllable. 


§  29,  A.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


71 


b.  Uncontracted  forms  without  assimilation  occur  rarely 
'  (in  only  21  verbs),  as  dvapbaipudei  T  490  (with  long  a  as  in 

BiyJrdcDP  X  584,  7 recvdwv  T  25),  vaierdovcn  £  158,  dochideu  k  227, 
ovrae  ^  356  Qovra,  A  525  and  often,  is  a  second  aorist,  see 
§  35),  KpaSdwv  H  213. 

adco  imperfect,  d>  238,  and  imperative,  v  230,  is  a  /xt-form, 
as  if  from  adwpu. 

c.  The  vowels  of  the  uncontracted  forms  are  generally 
assimilated,  a  prevailing  over  a  following  e  or  r;  but  being 
assimilated  to  o,  w,  or  ov.  These  forms  are  intermediate  be¬ 
tween  the  original  and  the  contracted  stage,  as  opowauv  6  173 
(i opdovcriv ,  opwcnv),  yfiGoovres  11  604,  iXdav  7  484  ( eXa-ev ,  eXav). 
dXoco  e  377  seems  to  be  for  dXae-o  contracted  to  dXd-o  ( cf .  h 
below),  with  assimilation  of  vowels  aAco-o,  and  by  transposi¬ 
tion  of  quantity  dXo-co. 

d.  One  of  the  vowels  is  usually  lengthened  in  the  text  of 
the  Mss.,  as  opowvres  rj  145.  Sometimes  this  appears  to  be  a 
conformation  to  Attic  usage  (§  4  li). 

e.  Dual  forms  follow  the  analogy  of  Homeric  verbs  in  -pu , 
as  (iTreiXriTrjv  X  313,  7 rpoaavhrjTrjv  A  136.  Cf.  j  below,  and 
pprjcu  %  343  as  from  opypu. 

f .  A  few  verbs  in  -aw  have  collateral  forms  in  -ea>,  as  tfvreov 
H  423. 

II.  g.  Verbs  in  -ea>  generally  remain  uncontracted  ;  except 
ee,  which  is  generally  contracted  in  the  Mss.,  but  often  the 
uncontracted  forms  are  metrically  possible,  eo  is  very  rarely 
contracted  except  in  the  participle  ending  -evpievos  (where 
contraction  occurs  to  prevent  a  too  frequent  recurrence  of 
short  syllables,  §  41  g).  eoo  is  never  contracted  but  is  often 
pronounced  as  one  syllable  by  synizesis  (§  7). 

h.  Sometimes  the  variable  vowel  e  is  contracted  with  e  of 
the  stem  instead  of  with  the  termination,  as  alSeio  II  503 
(a78ecr-£-cro),  pivOelai  6  180,  airelo  K  285.  airelo  seems  to  be 
formed  on  the  analogy  of  alhelo.  One  of  these  vowels  is 
sometimes  dropped,  as  diroaipeo  A  275,  e/cXeo  H  202,  puvdeaL 


72 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  29,  i. 


/ 3  202,  7 rcoXecu  8  811.  The  accentuation  of  these  last  three 
forms  is  uncertain. 

i 

i.  The  older  form  of  these  verbs,  in  -etco,  is  sometimes  pre¬ 
served,  as  ereXelero  A  5,  veuceipat  A  579.  See  §  5  f. 

j.  Some  verbs  in  -aco  and  -eco  have  a  present  infinitive  in 
-rj/jbevat,  like  /u-verbs,  as  apppuevai  %  322,  icaXppievcu  K  125, 
7 roOrj/Jbevat  fi  110,  (fiiXij/uLevcu  X  265.  See  §  34  b. 

cpopeco  forms  cpopeeiv  A  144,  <p>opr]p,evcu  O  310,  (poprjvaL  B  107. 

III.  k.  Verbs  in  -oco  are  generally  contracted.  Sometimes 
they  have  forms  with  the  double  o  sound,  like  verbs  in  -aco,  as 
dpowaiv  i  108  ( dpoovatv ,  apovcnv ),  vtcvwovtcls;  e  48,  earparo- 
covro  T  187  (which  might  be  written  iarparoovro'),  8rjiow6v 
8  226  ( SrjtooLev ?). 

TENSES. 

§  30.  Future  and  First  Aorist,  Active  and  Middle. 
a.  Pure  verbs  which  do  not  lengthen  the  stem-vowel  in  the 
formation  of  the  tenses,  often  have  double  a  in  the  future 
and  first  aorist,  active  and  middle,  as  al8eaaop^ai  £  388,  kcl- 
Xeaaa  II  106. 

h.  In  the  future  the  a  of  the  before-mentioned  verbs  often 
disappears,  as  fcaXeovaa  T  383,  dvnocov  a  25,  Kopeec  ©  379  (for 
/copeaei,  from  Kopevvvpu ),  8apida  X  271,  /cpepioco  H  83,  cf.  icopua) 
o  546  ;  oXeaaei  [3  49,  oXeaco  v  399,  oXelrcu  B  325. 

c.  Stems  in  S  often  show  double  a  in  the  aorist. 

d.  Most  of  these  forms  with  aa  may  be  explained  as  origi¬ 
nal  or  assimilated,  as  veUeaae  from  the  theme  veucea  (cf.  vel- 
Kof),  /copLLaaaro  for  rcopub-aaTo  (cf.  icopuhrf).  Thus  the  stem- 
vowel  of  these  verbs  was  not  final  originally,  and  hence  is 
not  lengthened  in  the  future  and  aorist. 

e.  The  asigmatic  future  of  liquid  verbs  is  inflected  like  the 
present  of  verbs  in  -eco,  as  BaXeeo  k  290,  oXeeaOcu  O  700.  See 
§  29  II. 

f.  Some  stems  in  X  and  p  retain  the  a  of  the  future  and 
aorist  (as  some  do  in  Attic),  as  apaas  (dpapiaKoi)  a  280, 


§  31,  c.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


73 


eXcrai  A  409,  Oepcropevos  r  507,  Kvpcras  T  23,  8ia(f)0epcreL  N  625, 
ifceXaapev  i  546,  Mpcre  A  10.  For  ofyeXXeiev  f3  334,  see  §  12  e. 

g.  The  so-called  Doric  future  with  tense-sign  ae,  is  found 
in  ecrcreiTcu  B  393,  i reaeovTcu  A  824.  This  is  an  archaism,  not 
a  Dorism. 

li.  Some  verbs  have  a  future  without  tense-sign,  as  Spew 
£  291  slialt  find,  elpc,  tcelco  r  340  shall  lie  Q/ccuaceiovres  a  424 
to  lie  down),  e8opcu,  nriopai,  dvvco,  ipvco,  fieopai  O  194  (^e/o- 
pat  X  431).  Some  of  these  verbs  are  old  presents  which 
acquired  a  future  signification ;  elpi  is  not  always  future  in 
Homer,  cf.  B  87. 

i.  Some  verbs  form  the  first  aorist  active  and  middle  with¬ 
out  er,  as  i)veucav  8  784  (Attic  r/vey/ca),  e^evev  /3  395  and  e^eev 
Z  419  (from  e^ea  for  eyeua),  ecrcreva  E  208,  rjXevaro  X  274  and 
dXeaaOe  8  774,  efcrja  A  40,  subjv.  tcrjopev  H  377  (from  /calco). 

j.  The  first  aorist  often  has  the  variable  vowel  of  the 
second  aorist  °/€,  as  l%ov  7  5,  8vaero  /3  388.  So  in  the  im¬ 
perative,  as  /3i)<jeo  E  109,  opcreo  T  250,  d^ere  r  105,  oiaere 
T  103,  oyfreade  H  704;  infinitive,  oiaepevcu  T  120;  participle, 
8vaopevoio  a  24  and  probably  iirifiricropevov  n  343. 

k.  Verbs  in  -£a)  often  have  themes  in  7  and  thus  futures 
and  first  aorists  in  and  -£<z,  as  e^aXaira^at  A  129,  pepprj- 
pctje  /3  93,  TrroXepl^opev  B  328. 

l.  The  future  optative  is  not  found  in  Homer. 

31.  Perfect,  a.  The  so-called  first  perfect  in  -/ca  is 
formed  only  from  20  vowel-stems.  It  is  almost  as  rare  as 
the  first  aorist  in  -tea  (e8co/ca,  er\ica,  edrj/ca).  Forms  without 
k  are  derived  even  from  vowel-stems,  especially  participial 
forms,  as  rce/cpr/rcas  Z  262,  but  /ce/cprjcos  T  232 ;  rrefyvKacn  r/ 
114  but  7 T€(f)vacnv  7)  128  epiretyvvia  A  513 ;  reOvr/Kev  a  196, 
redvrj/cvcav  8  734,  but- reOvrjora  P  402. 

b.  The  final  mute  of  the  stem  is  not  aspirated. 

c.  The  endings  are  affixed  immediately  to  the  reduplicated 
verb-stem  in  /3e/3dao-p  <ye<ydaai,  8€l8l6i,  8€l8lp6v,  i8€i8i(rav,  iypip 


74 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  31,  d 


y op0e,  eiKTOv ,  eiXyXov0piev,  1&/JL6V,  fce/c/JLrjcos,  /xe/xarov,  ireTroaOe, 
67r67Tidfiev,  eo-rare,  TerXai7 j,  rerXa0i,  reOvacrav. 

d.  yvcoyov  (as  £  216),  /xe/JLrjfcov  (as  i  439),  yeycove  (as  6  305) 
are  inflected  as  imperfects ;  cf.  eppiyycn  Y  353,  oXcoXy  A  164, 
which  have  the  force  of  present  subjunctives. 

e.  dXaXypuevos,  aXdXrjcrOcu,  aKayppuevo^,  dfcd^rjadai,  icrcnj- 
pievos  are  accented  irregularly  as  presents.  See  §  26  n. 

f.  The  second  perfect  often  has  a  long  vowel  in  the  stem 
where  the  second  aorist  has  a  short  vowel,  as  apypy  e  361, 
dpapy  II  212 ;  opcope  H  374,  wpope  B  146. 

g.  In  the  feminine  participle  the  short  form  of  the  stem 
appears,  as  dpypcos  k  553  but  dpapvla  £  267,  re0yXco<;  pi  103 
but  TeOaXvla  £  293 ;  hence  iucvia  not  ei/cvia  T  386,  etc. 

VOICES. 

§  32.  Middle,  a.  The  active  and  middle  forms  opav 
(about  40  times)  and  opao-6cu  (about  20  times),  I8eiv  (more 
than  200  times)  and  I8ea0ac  (90  times),  are  used  often  with¬ 
out  appreciable  difference  of  meaning;  cf.  ecparo  f3  267,  tyy 
ft  377. 

lb.  The  first  aorist  middle  is  sometimes  used  without  dif¬ 
ference  of  meaning  from  the  second  aorist  active,  as  e/dyaero 
7]  135,  e/3y  a  427  ;  eSvaero  T  328,  e8v  T  36 ;  Kiyycraro  A  385, 
e/ctyev  y  169. 

c.  The  future  middle  is  sometimes  used  as  passive,  as  8iap- 
paicrecrOcu  II  355,  nrepaerai  12  729,  reXeeaOai  B  36.  Cf.  e. 

d.  The  aorist  middle  is  sometimes  used  with  no  distinc¬ 
tion  of  meaning  from  the  passive,  as  /coipiyo-avro  A  476,  kol- 
pLy07)pb€v  i  559;  yoXwcrapbkvy  Y  413,  yoX(o0€is  A  9;  e8vvyaaTO 
5  33,  8vvacr0y  e  319;  y yparo  S  270,  ydpy  Y  76  (cf.  /ceyapol- 
aro  A  256)  ;  direvdcrcraTO  B  629,  vdcr0y  H  119  ;  dyepovro  B  94, 
yyep0ev  A  57  ;  Xvpuyv  80,  Xv0ev  12  31 ;  dpi(f)6yvro  B  41,  dpifye- 
yv0y  8  716;  cf.  icTdcr0cu  O  558  be  slain ,  tcrapikvoio  Y  375; 
and  iXeXiy0ycrav  E  497  they  rallied ,  0wpyy0yvai  A  226  arm 
himself ,  I0vv0yryv  II  475. 


§  34,  rf.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


o 

e.  Homer  lias  only  (Lpypcraadai,  rjpaadpLrjv,  ijaaro,  ope^aroy 
never  the  corresponding  passive  forms. 

33.  Passive,  a.  For  the  ending  of  the  aorist  passive  in¬ 
finitive,  see  §  26  m. 

b.  For  the  ending  of  the  third  plural  indicative,  see  §  26  v. 

c.  The  second  aorist  subjunctive  passive  usually  remains 
uncontracted,  and  follows  the  rule  of  ytu-verbs  (§  34  cl). 

d.  In  the  second  aorist  subjunctive,  the  passive  suffix  is 
often  long  (and  the  mode-vowel  short  in  the  dual  and  in  the 
first  or  second  person  plural,  §  2T  a'),  as  8aeico  i  280  (from 
stem  8a-,  cf.  8arjvai),  8apbpr)s  Y  436  (fapcvripci),  crairpr)  T  27 
( 'arjirco'),  BapiTjere  H  72,  rpaTreLopcev  T  441  ( repirw ,  §  13),  but 
puyecocnv  B  475  (ytu<77&>). 

e.  Homer  has  only  two  futures  from  passive  stems,  8arjcreai 
7  187,  pu<y7]cr€cr6aL  K  365. 

f.  Some  verbs  have  both  first  and  second  aorists  passive, 
as  e/3\d(f)d7]crav  T  387,  efiXafiev  T  461 ;  epoc^Or)  E  134,  epdyrjv 
Y  445;  TrrjyOev  0  298,  i rayev  A  572;  erepcf^Oyre  p  174,  rdp(f)dr] 
cf)  57,  irdpirrjcrav  H  633,  rpaireiopcev  Y  441,  with  TerapiroopLeaQa 
T  10  in  the  same  sense. 

VERBS  IN  -MI. 

34.  a.  Some  verbs  in  -pu  have  forms  in  the  present  and 
imperfect  indicative  which  follow  the  analogy  of  contract 
verbs:  rcdel  a  192,  8l8ol  8  237,  80808(71  a  313,  lelcn  T  152,  £81- 
8ov  A  289,  irldeo  f3  390  ;  so  8apcva  \  221,  7 rlrva  7,  hcipva 
rj  182,  copwe  (ft  100. 

b.  Verbs  in  -pu  sometimes  retain  the  long  vowel  of  the 
stem  where  it  is  short  in  Attic,  as  roOppLevai  T  83  (for  n6e- 
vai),  cf.  (fuXrjpLevai  X  265 ;  TiOppcevov  K  34  (for  ridepcevov'). 
8c8d)(7o^€y  v  358  ( 8cocropiev )  and  8i8ovvai  H  425  are  irregular. 

c.  For  the  ending  -v  for  -crav,  see  §  26  w. 

d.  The  second  aorist  subjunctive  active  generally  remains 
un contracted.  The  stem  vowel  often  appears  in  its  long 


76 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  34,  e. 


form  witli  short  mode  vowel  in  the  dual  and  in  the  first  and 
second  plural  (cf.  §§  27  a ,  33  cT),  as  6eiw  a  89  (better  dpw), 
7 vcoco  £  118,  aryy 9  P  30,  Scoycnv  A  324,  Traparrgrov  e  183, 
Oeiogev  A  143  (better  Oyogev ),  7 vcowcn  A  302,  ipelogev  A  62 
(better  iprtogev,  as  from  an  epp/u). 

e.  w jgt  send  has  the  following  not- Attic  forms:  Zetet  (Zaet), 
ijjcTL  \iy)  lev  ( lecrav ),  legevai  (^levat),  aveaei  (avyerei),  eytca 
(fjtca),  tcdOegev  (jcaQelge v),  eaav ,  elcrav  ( f)fcav ),  gedelco  (p-edw), 
pert,  dcfxsy,  dvyy  (avy),  gedegev  (^gedelvai) ,  evro  ( elvro ). 

f.  a.  eZ/u  po  or  s7tttZZ  go  is  aoristic  except  in  the  present 
indicative.  It  has  the  following  not-Attic  forms :  eZedc 
(thrice  for  eZ),  pta,  dvrgov  (pa),  yte,  ye,  Ze(^)  (pet),  rrpz; 
(prpz/),  yogev,  egev  (r/gev),  ytcrav,  laav,  ytov  ( fjaav ),  LycrOa 
(tp?),  I'ycnv  (tp),  logev,  logev  (I'cogev),  leiy  (tot),  lgev(ai) 
( ievcu  ),  fut.  el'erogai,  aor.  eicraro,  eelcraro. 

f3.  Perhaps  ytgev,  ytcrav  should  be  read  for  yogev,  ytov. 

g.  a.  elgl  am  has  the  following  not-Attic  forms :  eeet, 
€t?  (also  enclitic,  somewhat  less  frequent  than  eee/,  which 
consists  of  the  original  stem  ee-  and  the  original  ending  of 
the  second  person  -et,  which  generally  can  be  substituted  for 
it)  (eZ),  elgev  ( eergev ),  edert  (etc t),  77a,  ec,  eW  (pt')J  eycrOa 
{ytrVa),  yev,  eyv,  yyv  {yv),  eaav  (77 crav),  ew,  geretco  (w),  ep?, 
ycTiv  (779),  ewet  (wet),  eot9  (etp 9),  eot  (ety),  ecrao ,  a  form  of 
the  middle  voice,  as  also  Sappho  I  28,  (Tedt),  eggev(at ),  by 
assimilation  for  ecr-gevai,  egev(at )  (eZmt),  ewz7,  eovera  kt\.  (mv, 
ovaa  ktX.) ,  eaaerat,  ecrcretrat  (twice,  for  carat).  Iterative 
ecr/cov,  ea/ce. 

ft.  eyv,  yyv  (yv),  probably  should  be  written  eez^,  pez;. 

7.  Forms  without  the  root-vowel  e  (remnant  of  ee-)  are 
very  rare,  as  peti*  T  202,  wet  H  274,  w  491,  ovays  r  489,  oV- 
t<x9  y  94 ;  77^  is  more  common  but  often  can  be  written  eei/. 

h.  (pyg[  sag  has  the  following  not-Attic  forms :  (fcycrOa 
(efrys) ,  eefyav,  (f)dv  (eepaaav),  cf>yy,  (ftyatv  (0p).  Middle  forms 
are  common,  but  not  in  the  present  indicative  :  efydgyv ,  e^aro, 
tyavTo ,  imperative  (pdo ,  (jxlaOco ,  infinitive  (paaOat ,  participle 


§  36,  b.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


77 


c fcd/jL€vo< Iterative  efyacncov  tcrX,  irecjxicrpLevov  H  127  may 
come  from  (paivco. 

i.  fcel/icu  lie  has  the  following  not-Attic  forms:  Keiajat, 
fcaarcu,  /ceovTcu  ( Keivrai ),  /ceiaro,  Kearo  ( e/cecvro ),  Kijrai  (from 
KeercLL  for  Keyraft.  Iterative  tcea/cero.  For  the  future  /celco, 


k€lwv,  tceiovres,  see 


80  h. 


j.  a.  rj/jicu  sit  has  eiarcu,  ear  at  (rjvrcu),  ecaro,  earo  ( rjvro 


r  158). 

ft.  ijarcu  and  rjaro  are  more  rational  forms  than  elarai  and 
e'caro,  which  are  found  in  the  Mss. 

k.  olBa  know  has  the  following  not-Attic  forms :  oiBas 
(only  a  387,  for  oia6a),  IBpiav  ( icrfiev ),  jjBea  (ijBrj),  rjeiBrjf;  (see 
§  41  d,  for  ijSrjaOa),  r/elBec,  tjBee  (ijBei),  ccrav  (ycrav),  l8/jL€v{cu') 
(elBevcu) ,  IBvia  (elBuia).  Future  elBrjcrco  as  well  as  eicropLcu. 

l.  x p /]  in  Homer  seems  to  be  a  noun.  See  §3  k. 


§  35.  Second  Aorists  without  Variable  Vowel. 
Many  second  aorists,  active  and  middle,  are  found  without 
variable  vowel,  following  the  analogy  of  verbs  in  ~/u,  as  e/cra 
a  300,  efcrcLTo  O  437  (from  Krelvco,  stem  fcrev-,  /era-)  ;  aXcro 
n  754,  aXro  A  532  (aWo/icu) ;  a/xevcu  d5  70  (a«)  ;  yevro  ©  43  ; 
iyy'jpa  H  148,  y rjpds  P  197  (yrjpaco)  ;  eyvco  A  199  ;  Be/cro  B  420 
(8eyo/xat)  ;  ftXijro  A  518  (ftdXXco)  ;  kXv0l  ft  262,  /cXvre  B  56 
(k:\5cd)  ;  epUKTo  a  433 ;  olna  Z  64,  ovrdp,evai  i  301 ;  TrXrjro 
X  50  ;  eireTrXws  y  15  (7 rXooco)  ;  ecreruro  B  809  Qaevoi)  ;  ecf)0LTO 
X  100,  (f)6ic r6ac  ft  183,  (f)0LpLevos  0  359  (<fi0Lvco). 


ITERATIVE  FORMS. 

§  36.  a.  Iterative  forms  of  the  imperfect  and  aorist  indi¬ 
cate  the  repetition  of  a  state  or  action.  The  augment  is 
generally  omitted.  These  forms  are  characterized  by  the  suf¬ 
fix  -a/c  and  have  the  inflection  of  the  imperfect  of  verbs  in 
-cd.  They  are  confined  to  the  Ionic  dialect.  The  iterative 
idea  is  frequently  waning  and  occasionally  is  lost. 

b.  Verbs  in  -cd  add  the  endings  -atcov  or  -ctko^v  to  the 


78 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  36,  c. 


e-form  of  the  stem  of  the  present  or  second  aorist,  as  eyecncov, 
eXecr/ce,  eLirecrrce ,  chea/ce. 

c.  fcpvTTT acr fc€  ©272  probably  should  be  Kpvirrecnce.  piir- 
rao-fce  #  374  probably  should  be  pi^acnce,  although  both  may 
be  considered  as  formed  according  to  mistaken  analogy. 

d.  Iteratives  from  the  first  aorist  are  peculiar  to  Homer, 
iXacracr/ce  ( eXavvco ),  pLvrjcrdcnceTO  (papivijcr/CGo) ,  Ope^acncov  ( rpe - 

%«)■ 

e.  The  suffix  is  sometimes  added  without  variable  vowel 
to  themes  which  end  in  a  vowel,  as  eW/ee?  T  295,  coOearce  X 
596,  (fxivecrfce  X  587  (the  only  example  of  a  passive). 

f.  Verbs  in  -pa  add  the  endings  -cncov  or  -cncopurjv  directly 
to  the  theme:  efyacncov,  hocncov ,  hvcr/cev,  Kecncero  (/cet/zcu), 
ecncov  (for  ea-cncov,  elpui). 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§  37.  a.  Prepositions  often  retain  their  original  adverbial 
force  (as  ev  he  but  therein ,  i rapa  he  and  beside  him).  They 
may  be  placed  after  the  verbs  or  nouns  with  which  they  are 
connected.  See  §  3  d. 

b.  a.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  verb 
which  it  modifies,  as  7 rap  he  K ecpaXXijvcov  dyu-01  erre^e?  ovk 
aXairahvai  \  earacrav  A  330  f.,  where  7 rap  modifies  earaaav. 
In  ev  he  7 rvpl  irp^aavre^  H  429,  ev  is  to  be  construed  adver¬ 
bially,  while  7 rv pi  is  dative  of  means. 

j3.  Sometimes  the  preposition,  like  other  adverbs  of  place, 
governs  a  genitive  where  in  its  prepositional  use  it  would  be 
followed  by  another  case,  as  rov  p^o^Xov  vn to  airohov  i'fXaaa 
t  375  1  drave  the  bar  under  the  ashes ,  where  vi ro  airohov  would 
be  more  regular. 

y.  Similarly  other  words  which  were  separate  in  the  Ho¬ 
meric  age  were  welded  together  in  later  time :  ov  yap  eVt 
became  ov/cerc  yap,  hia  h’  dpiirepes  A  377  became  hiap,7repes  he. 
So  in* old  English  to  us  ward  was  used  where  the  later  idiom 
requires  toward  us;  be  thou  ivare  for  beware! 


§  38,  a.] 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


79 


c.  Anastrophe.  a .  Disyllabic  prepositions,  when  they 
immediately  follow  the  word  with  which  they  are  construed, 
take  the  accent  upon  the  penult,  except  dgcf)l,  dvrl,  dvd,  hid. 
dva  Z  331  stands  for  dvdargdc.  eve  is  used  for  eve  ten  or  eve- 
(ttl,  eiri  for  eirecrn,  gera  for  gerean.  airo  is  used  for  arroOev 
far  from,  irepc  is  used  for  rrepicraws  exceedingly. 

(3.  Elided  prepositions  suffer  anastrophe  only  when  they 
as  adverbs  modify  a  verb  to  be  supplied,  as  eV  Y  45  for 
eirecm, —  or  by  way  of  exception,  in  order  to  avoid  ambi¬ 
guity,  as  e<f  A  350,  to  show  that  the  preposition  is  to  be  con¬ 
nected  with  the  preceding  word ;  so  irdp'  2  191,  tear  p  24G. 

7.  This  so-called  retraction  of  the  accent  to  the  first  sylla¬ 
ble  is  only  a  conservation  of  its  original  position,  from  which 
it  was  moved  when  the  adverb  lost  something  of  its  inde¬ 
pendence  by  its  close  connection  with  a  verb  or  noun. 

d.  a.  ev  has  the  parallel  forms  elv,  elv  l,  eve.  elv  stands  only 
in  the  part  of  the  foot  which  receives  the  ictus,  and  its  use 
is  nearly  confined  to  certain  phrases,  as  elv  dyopfj,  elv  ’A ISao 
hogounv.  elv  l  is  used  but  half  a  dozen  times  and  only  in  the 
second  foot. 

/ 3 .  The  poet  uses  both  e?  and  et?,  Kara  and  Karai  (in 
KaTaif3arai  v  HO),  7 rapd  and  rrapal ,  7 rpo?,  7 rport,  and  7 totl, 
viro  and  viral,  vrrep  and  virelp. 

7.  The  forms  in  -at  seem  to  be  old  locatives,  cf.  yayal 
(Jiumi) . 

e.  e£  receives  an  accent  when,  following  its  noun,  it  stands 
at  the  end  of  the  verse,  as  dewv  ef  p  518,  or  is  in  danger  of 
a  wrong  construction,  as  Oecov  e$j  eggope  rtgig  e  335  from  the 
gods  she  has  received  a  share  of  honor. 

f.  dgcf)L,  dvd,  and  gerd,  are  used  also  with  the  dative. 

ADVERBS. 

§  38.  a.  a.  A  predicate  adjective  is  often  used  where  the 
English  idiom  has  an  adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase,  as  yfk J09 
eftr)  A  424  went  yesterday ,  geplg  A  497  early  in  the  morning , 


80 


THE  HOMERIC  DIALECT. 


[§  38,  b. 


7ravr]/ji€ptoL  A  472  all  clay  long,  iravvvyios  a  448  through  the 
whole  night ,  geraBo pirLos  B  194  after  supper ,  kvvvyioi  A  683  by 
night ,  cvBlol  A  726  at  midday ,  ecnrepioi  £  344  at  evening ,  Trprj- 
vig  E  58  Qpronus')  on  his  face ,  iirog^aXcov  H  267  (ebr’  ogtya- 
Xp)  on  the  boss ,  Be^tov  K  274  cm  the  right ,  gerdnnov  IT  739  cm 
the  forehead,  7re£o9  II  438  on  foot. 

/3.  Similarly  fcelvos  12  412  there ,  007-09  K  341  here,  and  fre¬ 
quently  oSe,  as  ?/yU,eA  oTSe  a  76  we  /cere. 

7.  7r pocppcov  willing  is  used  only  predicatively,  where  the 
English  idiom  uses  willingly. 

b.  Adverbs  ending  in  -a  are  common :  Xlya  (but  Xcyicos  is 
more  frequent),  ad(f>a,  rdya  (about  70  times,  but  raye a)?  only 
^  365),  coxa.  These  seem  to  have  been  originally  neuter 
cognate  accusatives,  and  many  are  such  still;  cf.  7roW’  eVe- 
reXXe,  7 ro\\’  gparo,  geya  vrj'Kie,  geyc'OC  evyero,  ktX. 

c.  Adverbs  in  -Bgv  and  -Bov  (originally  adverbial  accusa¬ 
tives  from  stems  in  -Ba  and  -So)  are :  dgftoXdBgv,  ftdBrjv,  eiri- 
ypd(38rjv,  eTTiXlyBrjv,  €7ri(7Tpo(pdBr]v,  /cXijBrjv,  /cpv/SBgv,  geraBpo- 
gdBrjv,  ovogaicXpBriv,  7rapa/3XrjB7)v,  'KporpoTrdBrjV,  V7roj3\gBrjv 
(all  having  the  signification  of  the  participle  of  the  corres¬ 
ponding  verb),  —  dyeXrjBov,  dvacfiavBov,  dva-  (o7ro-,  eirt-,  7 repi-) 
araBov,  (dorpvBov,  Bia/cpcBov,  IXaBov,  fcaracfrvXaBov,  /carcogaBov, 
/cXayyrjBov,  iravdvgaBov,  (paXayygBov. 

cl.  Adverbs  in  -Ba  are  rare,  as  dvacfyavBa,  dirocrraBd,  giyBec. 

e.  Adverbs  in  -Sc?  are :  aXXvBis,  dgoi/3rjBg,  dgvBg,  dg- 

f .  Adverbs  in  -1  are :  dgoyrjrl,  avaigwri,  dvcBpcori,  dvoyrr/rl, 
dvOHCTTL,  daTrovBl. 

g.  Adverbs  in  -J  are :  yvv^,  imgl Kovpilj,  Xd%,  o8d£,  7 rof . 

h.  Adverbs  in  -&>?  are  not  common ;  they  are  most  fre¬ 
quent  from  o-stems  :  007-0)9  (00x09),  009  (0),  avrco 9  (0.0x09), 
/co/cw9  (/C0/C09).  I'acos  and  ogoLcos  are  not  found,  /coAo>9  only 
/3  63,  (filXco 9  only  A  347. 

Adverbs  in  -0)9  are  formed  also  from  dfypaBrjs  (dcppaBew^ 
datyaXps  Qda(\>aXewf),Xiyv^  (Xcyecof),  geyas  QgeydXwf) ,  ray 09 


§  39,  c.J 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


81 


(TO^ew?),  Te’xyy'ieis  (re'yvrjivrcof;),  ancl  from  the  participles 
(used  like  adjectives)  eTrLardgevos,  eoavgevo^. 

These  adverbs  in  -oj?  are  little  used  also  by  the  lyric  poets : 
KaXoosy  kclk a>9,  tcra)9,  dWcos  are  not  found  in  Pindar. 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 

§  39.  The  Heroic  Hexameter,  a.  The  poems  are  to 
be  read  with  careful  attention  to  the  metrical  quantity  of 
each  syllable,  as  well  as  to  the  sense  of  the  passage.  There 
are  six  feet  (bars  or  measures)  in  each  verse ;  hence  the 
name  hexameter.  The  part  of  each  foot  which  has  no  ictus 
(the  arsis)  should  receive  as  much  time  though  not  so  much 
stress  as  the  ictus-syllable  (the  thesis).  The  rhythm  would 
be  called  J  time  in  .modern  music.  The  English  hexameter 
(found  e.g.  in  Longfellow’s  Evangeline)  is  generally  read  as 
of  f  time. 

I>.  The  written  word-accent  is  to  be  disregarded  in  read¬ 
ing  Homeric  verse.  Occasionally  (as  avSpa  got  evverre ,  govaa, 
iro\vTpoirov  09  gd\a  iroWd  a  1)  the  verse-ictus  and  word- 
accent  may  coincide,  but  the  word-accent  seems  to  have  had 
no  influence  on  the  formation  of  the  verse. 

c.  The  dactyl  (J  J'J'  or  _ww),  with  the  ictus  on  the 
first  syllable,  is  the  fundamental  and  prevailing  foot  of  Ho¬ 
meric  verse.  It  is  often  replaced  by  a  spondee  1  or  heavy 

dactyl  (J  J  or - ).  In  three  verses  of  the  Iliad  (B  544, 

A  130,  T  221)  and  in  three  of  the  Odyssey  (o  334,  <£  15,  ^ 
192)  each  foot  is  a  spondee,  but  a  restoration  of  older,  un- 

1  This  name  was  derived  from  the  use  of  this  slow  solemn  measure  in  the 
hymns  which  accompanied  the  libation  (airovS-q)  to  the  gods;  cf.  two  brief 
hymns  of  the  Lesbian  Terpander,  about  700  n.c.,  to  Zeus:  ZeG  iraurwy  apx“4 
iravroov  0777x0 >p,  |  Zev,  aol  o-rrev8w  ]  ravrav  v/xucav  apxav,  and  to  Apollo  and  the 
Muses  :  ^7T€i/8w/ul€V  reus  M vdp.as  \  nvaLalv  Mwaais  |  Kal  T(p  Mcaaapxv  |  A arovs  viei. 


82 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  39,  d. 


contracted  forms  would  give  at  least  one  dactyl  to  each  of 
these  verses ;  ’ArpelSys  •  rco  S’  avr’  e/c  SLtypov  yovva^eaOrjv  A 
130  may  be  read  with  two  dactyls  ’ArpecSr]^  •  rco  S’  avr  etc 
Sixfipoo  (§  17  c )  yovva^eaOrjv. 

Dactyls  are  about  three  times  as  frequent  as  spondees  in 
the  Homeric  poems. 

d.  Verses  in  which  each  of  the  first  five  feet  is  a  dactyl 
are  far  more  common  in  Homer  than  in  Vergil:  there  are 
160  in  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad  alone.  Many  frequently 
recurring  verses  have  this  rhythm ;  as  rov  S’  dirapieLftopLevos 
7 rpocrecpr)  iroba^  co/cv?  A^iWevs,  —  oi  o  ei t  ovetau  eroipia  irpo- 
KeipLeva  yelpas  taWov,  —  avrap  eVel  rrocnos  kcu  iSrjrvos 
epov  evro.  Many  other  verses  have  but  one  spondee  (gener¬ 
ally  in  the  first  foot)  among  the  first  five  feet ;  as  r/puos  S’ 
rjpvyeveLa  cjidvr)  poSoSd/crvXos  —  r/pios  S’  r/eXios  KareSv  /cai 
errl  fcvecfras  rj\6ev. 

e.  Spondees  are  most  common  in  the  first  two  feet;  they 
are  more  and  more  avoided  in  each  foot  toward  the  close  of 
the  verse,  except  perhaps  in  the  fourth  foot  where  the  great 
Alexandrian  critic  Aristarchus  preferred  a  spondee.  But 
very  many  of  these  spondees  in  the  first  and  fourth  feet  of 
our  texts  can  be  and  doubtless  should  be  resolved  into  dac¬ 
tyls  ;  thus  dyrfpaov  B  447  is  now  read  for  the  dy^pwv  of  Aris¬ 
tarchus. 

f.  The  first  foot  allows  more  freedom  than  any  other.  A 
short  vowel  there  more  frequently  retains  its  natural  quan¬ 
tity  before  a  mute  and  a  liquid,  and  yet  is  more  frequently 
lengthened  in  the  unaccented  part  of  the  foot  (§  41  h  y')  be¬ 
fore  that  combination.  At  the  close  of  the  first  foot,  hiatus 
is  allowed  (§  9  b). 

Similarly  the  first  foot  of  the  iambic  trimeter  of  Greek 
tragedy  and  of  English  poetry  has  exceptional  freedom. 

g.  The  Bucolic  diaeresis  (§  40  h)  is  seldom  immediately 
preceded  by  a  word  of  three  long  syllables.  Before  this 
diaeresis,  a  dactyl  is  strongly  preferred,  and  is  to  be  restored 


§  40,  c.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


83 


in  many  places  where  the  Mss.  have  the  contracted  form. 
Certain  dactylic  forms,  as  /3>;o-ero,  are  preserved  there  more 
frequently  than  elsewhere  in  the  verse. 

h.  Verses  which  have  a  spondee  in  the  fifth  foot  are  called 
spondaic  verses  (eirrj  cnrovSeLatcd) .  They  are  more  common 
in  Homer  than  in  the  Latin  poets,  —  about  4  per  cent,  of  the 
verses  of  the  Iliad  being  spondaic. 

i.  These  spondaic  verses  seem  especially  frequent  at  the 
close  of  emphatic  sentences  or  of  divisions  of  the  narrative 
(cf.  A  21,  15T,  291,  600)  and  in  descriptions  of  suffering  and 
toil,  but  often  no  rhythmic  effect  is  sought ;  the  convenience 
of  the  verse  determined  the  measure. 

j.  The  last  two  feet  of  the  verse  must  not  consist  of  two 
spondaic  words  :  thus  ’Hw  Slav  l  306  should  be  ’H oa  Slav, 
S?']/jLov  (firjfus  £  239  should  be  S^goo  (f)r//u<;. 

k.  The  last  foot  in  each  verse  is  a  spondee,  but  the  final 
syllable  may  be  short ;  the  deficiency  in  time  is  then  made 
up  by  the  slight  pause  which  follows  at  the  end  of  the  verse 
(§  41  a,  p  a).  A  heavy  or  consonantal  ending  is  preferred; 
hence  the  ^-movable  is  often  used. 

l.  The  student  need  not  concern  himself  about  elision  as 
in  Latin  poetry ;  that  is  already  done  in  the  text ;  but  he 
must  be  watchful  for  synizesis  (§  7). 

CAESURAL  PAUSES. 

§  40.  a.  Each  verse  has  one  or  more  caesural  pauses  ( cae¬ 
sura  =  rofirj  cutting ),  — pauses  within  a  foot. 

b.  The  principal  caesura  of  the  verse  is  always  a  pause  in 
the  sense,  and  is  often  emphasized  by  punctuation,  as  in  each 
of  the  six  successive  verses  H  10-15 ;  but  occasionally  com¬ 
mas  are  found  where  no  pause  is  necessary. 

Of  course  there  can  be  no  pause  immediately  before  an 
enclitic,  since  this  is  closely  connected  with  the  foregoing 
word. 

c.  A  caesura  is  almost  always  found  in  the  third  foot; 


84 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  40,  d. 


only  185  verses  of  the  Iliad  and  71  of  the  Odyssey  have  no 
pause  there.  It  occurs  either  after  the  ictus-syllable  (as 
fJLYjviv  deibe  6ed  /\  YlrjXrjLdbew  ’  A^EVfio?  A  1  —  ww|  — 
_A_|_wu|_uw| - I)  or  between  the  two  short  sylla¬ 

bles  (as  avbpa  fioi  evvei re  M ovaa  /\  iroXvrporrov  o?  pidAa  iroWd 

a  1,  _ww|  —  uu|  —  \j  f\  \j  \  —  \j  \j  |  —  w  w  | - I).  These 

two  caesuras  are  about  equally  frequent ;  but  the  second 
slightly  predominates  and  seems  to  have  been  preferred. 

d.  The  importance  of  the  caesura  in  the  third  foot  is 
marked  not  only  by  the  freedom  with  which  hiatus  is  al¬ 
lowed  there  (§  9  b),  and  by  the  evident  avoidance  of  elision 
at  that  point  (§  10  e),  but  also  by  the  large  number  of  tags 
of  verses  which  are  suited  to  follow  it ;  as  iraryjp  dvSpcov  re 
0ewv  re,  fiocoTris  irbrvia''Wpri,  6ea  XeviccbXevos  "Yiprj,  6ea  y\av- 
kwttis  ’A  6/]vt),  (juXopupLeibris  ’A  cfipoSirr),  A  to?  Ovyarrjp  ’A  typohirrj, 
evKvr'/fube 9  ’A yaioi,  '  A^cuwv  ycLkicoyirddvwv,  tcdpr)  /copcbcovres 
'A%cuol,  dp7]L(f)i\o<;  M ez/ekao?,  aval;  dvbpbbv  '  Ay  a  pie pbvcov,  /3or]v 
dyaOos  AiopLrjSrjs,  Yeprjvio 9  irrirora  Near  cop,  /cr\.  —  all  of 
which  must  be  preceded  by  the  feminine  caesura  (see/)  of 
the  third  foot ;  while  ’Ayapiepivovos  ’A rpelbao,  evpv  rcpeiwv 
’ Ayapcepivcov ,  rjy proper  rjbe  puebovres,  dirapLeiftero  (fxbvr)aev  re 
/cr\.  must  be  preceded  by  the  masculine  caesura  of  the  third 
foot.  See  §  4  6,  c,  d. 

e.  The  pause  after  the  first  syllable  of  the  third  foot  is 
called  the  penthemimercd  caesura  (irevre,  rjpu- ,  pcepos')  because 
it  comes  after  the  fifth  half-foot ;  it  divides  the  verse  into 

4-  3J  feet.  The  pause  between  the  two  short  syllables  of 
the  third  foot  divides  the  verse  into  2f  +  3£  feet. 

f.  The  pause  after  an  ictus-syllable  is  called  a  masculine 
caesura  because  of  the  vigorous  tone  which  it  gives  to  the 
verse ;  the  pause  between  two  unaccented  syllables  is  called 
a  feminine  caesura. 

g.  Sometimes  the  principal  pause  of  the  verse  is  the  mas¬ 
culine  caesura  of  the  fourth  foot.  This  is  called  the  hephthe- 
mimeral  caesura  (kirra,  f)pu~,  yuepo?).  This  is  somewhat  more 


§  40,  to.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


85 


common  in  the  Iliad  than  in  the  Odyssey.  It  is  frequent 
after  a  feminine  caesura  of  the  third  foot.  It  gives  an  ener¬ 
getic  movement  after  a  penthemimeral  caesura,  when  the 
verse  is  divided  into  2J  +  1  +  2£  feet. 

li.  Sometimes  the  pause  of  the  verse  is  at  the  close  of  the 
fourth  foot ;  this  is  called  the  Bucolic  diaeresis  (a  diaeresis 
being  a  pause  at  the  end  of  a  word  between  two  feet)  or  cae¬ 
sura,  since  it  is  most  evidently  aimed  at  in  the  bucolic  or 
pastoral  poetry  of  Theocritus.  Occasionally  there  is  a  tran¬ 
sition  at  this  point  to  another  part  of  the  story,  as  A  318, 
348,  430.  This  Bucolic  diaeresis  with  the  penthemimeral 
caesura  divides  the  verse  into  2-J  +  1-J-  +  2  feet. 

i.  The  importance  of  the  Bucolic  diaeresis  is  marked  by 
the  large  number  of  tags  of  verses  which  are  ready  to  follow 
it,  as  Bios  ’O hvcrcrevs,  ep/cos  ’A yaiu>v,  iirirora  N ecrrcop,  o/3ptpio<? 
5,A prjs,  tyaihipLos  f/E /crop,  <&ol/3os  *A7 toWcov,  TLaWas  'AOijvT),  bice 
Oedwv,  pbr/riera  Zeu?,  IcroOeos  (^co?.  See  §  4  c.  Hiatus  is  al¬ 
lowed  here  occasionally.  See  §9  b. 

j.  A  slight  pause  occurs  after  the  first  short  syllable  of  the 
first  foot  about  50  times  in  100  verses. 

k.  A  slight  pause  occurs  about  as  often,  after  the  first 

short  syllable  of  the  fifth  foot.  The  poet  prefers  to  close  the 
verse  with  the  rhythm  —  w,  w - (where  the  comma  repre¬ 
sents  the  end  of  a  word)  rather  than  —  w  w, - ;  hence  ovre 

reXecrcras  A  108,  not  ovr  eVeXecrcra?.  See  §  25  e. 

l.  The  principal  pause  of  the  verse  is  almost  never  at  the 
close  of  the  third  foot ;  this  would  divide  the  verse  into  two 
equal  parts  and  cause  monotony.  A  word  ends  there  not 
infrequently,  but  is  acconqDanied  by  a  more  prominent  cae¬ 
sura  in  the  third  or  fourth  foot ;  as  ev6a  thov  i rXelarov^  <Tpu- 
ya?  avepas  T  185,  where  the  last  two  words  are  so  closely 
connected  that  no  caesura  is  felt  between  them.  But  see  y  34. 

m.  Even  a  slight  pause  is  rare  between  the  two  short  syl¬ 
lables  of  the  fourth  foot.  In  teal  eireiOero  pivOw  A  33,  the 
objectionable  pause  might  be  avoided  by  omitting  the  aug- 


86 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  40,  n. 


ment,  but  the  conjunction  is  connected  with  the  verb  so 
closely  that  no  caesura  is  felt. 

n.  It  has  been  remarked  that  the  iorbidden  caesura  is  next 
in  position  to  the  favorite  Bucolic  diaeresis ;  while  the  for¬ 
bidden  diaeresis  at  the  close  of  the  third  foot  is  next  to  the 
favorite  feminine  caesura  of  the  third  foot. 

o.  No  sentence  ends  with  the  second  foot. 

p.  The  pause  in  the  third  foot  gives  to  the  rest  of  the 
verse  an  anapaestic  movement,  from  which  it  is  often  recalled 
by  the  Bucolic  diaeresis.  Similarly  the  Roman  Saturnian 
verse  (as  Dabtint  malum  Metelli  /\  Naevid  poetae)  is  at  first 
iambic,  but  is  trochaic  at  the  close. 

q.  The  varied  position  of  the  main  caesura,  and  the  minor 
pauses  in  different  parts  of  the  verse,  give  perfect  freedom 
from  monotony  without  detracting  from  the  grace  and  dig¬ 
nity  of  the  measure. 


QUANTITY.1 

§  41.  a.  Metrical  convenience  or  necessity  often  determined 
the  poet’s  choice  among  synonymous  words  (§  4  a—d') ;  since 
ambidexter  was  not  suited  to  dactylic  verse,  irepi- 
8ej;ios  was  used  168.  The  poet  in  general  preferred  the 
light  dactyls  to  the  heavy  dactyls  or  spondees,  and  retained 

1  The  beginner  will  find  it  convenient  to  remember  concerning  a,  i,  v,  the 
vowels  whose  quantity  is  not  clear  at  the  first  glance,  that 

(1)  they  are  short  in  the  final  syllable  of  any  word  when  the  antepenult 
has  the  acute  or  if  the  penult  has  the  circumflex  accent ; 

(2)  they  are  regularly  short  in  inflectional  endings,  as  paxycri,  ^ipwa,  rpe- 
irovai,  Te0j/7 iKa, — in  the  final  syllables  of  neuter  nouns,  as  Swpa,  fipap,  pe\i, 
fiaKpvy — in  suffixes,  except  where  v  has  been  lost  before  a,  as  (pvaXs ,  SoXltjs,  4>of- 
vicraa,  —  in  particles,  especially  in  prepositions,  as  <W,  irtpi,  vv 6,  apa,  ctj,  — 
and  generally  in  the  second  aorist  stem  of  verbs ; 

(3)  they  are  long  in  the  final  syllable  when  the  penult  is  long  by  nature 
and  has  the  acute  accent ; 

(4)  they  are  long  when  they  are  the  result  of  contraction,  as  iripa  from 
eripaf,  ip6v  from  Upov,  veKvs  from  ve Kuas,  and  as  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  of 
nouns  of  the  first  declension. 


§  41,  c.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


87 


in  the  Epic  dialect  a  large  number  of  dactylic  forms  which 
were  afterwards  contracted.  An  ampldmacer  (—  w  apical, 
/jLCLKpov )  was  avoided  often  by  means  of  apocope,  synizesis,  or 
elision. 

Most  exceptions  to  the  rules  of  quantity  are  only  apparent. 
The  poet,  for  example,  did  not  lengthen  a  short  syllable  by 
placing  the  ictus  upon  it.  If  an  apparently  short  final  syl¬ 
lable  stands  where  a  long  syllable  is  expected,  it  is  probable 
either 

(1)  that  the  final  syllable  was  originally  long,  and  later 
lost  part  of  its  quantity,  as  irpiv,  nouns  in  -t?  QSXoo-vp&Tn? 
icrrecpdvcDTo  A  36),  and  the  dative  singular  ending  of  the 
third  declension  (§  18  a)  ;  or 

(2)  that  the  following  word  has  lost  an  initial  consonant 
which  would  have  made  the  preceding  syllable  long  by  posi¬ 
tion  (see  m  below) ;  or 

(3)  that  the  pause  (musical  rest')  of  a  caesura  or  diaeresis, 
fills  out  the  time  occupied  by  the  foot,  allowing  the  same 
freedom  as  at  the  end  of  the  verse  (§  39  Jc). 

h.  A  considerable  number  of  anomalies,  however,  remain 
unexplained.  Prominent  among  the  unexplained  anomalies 
of  quantity  is  the  l  of  certain  abstract  nouns,  as  v7rep07r\ir}crL 
A  205,  irpoOvpLLrjai  B  588,  dripLiycTL  v  142.  This  l  receives  no 
ictus,  hence  no  satisfaction  could  be  gained  even  from  the 
obsolete  doctrine  that  a  short  syllable  might  be  lengthened 
by  the  poet  if  it  were  made  the  ictus-syllable  of  the  foot. 
These  abstract  nouns  form  such  a  definite  class  that  it  may 
be  assumed  that  there  was  some  explanation,  perhaps  physio¬ 
logical,  for  them  all. 

c.  Doubtless  when  the  poems  were  recited  musically,  it 
might  have  been  easy  for  the  bard  in  his  intonation  to  hold, 
and  thus  to  lengthen,  a  syllable  which  was  usually  short,  or 
to  slur  over  a  long  syllable  and  treat  it  as  short.  But  it  is 
not  found  that  Homer  or  any  other  poet  availed  himself  of 
this  license. 


88 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  41,  d. 


cl.  Many  apparently  irregular  variations  of  natural  quan¬ 
tity,  as  well  as  apparent  freedom  in  allowing  hiatus,  and  vari¬ 
ations  of  quantity  made  by  position  (see  m  below),  are  to  be 
explained  by  the  loss  of  a  consonant,  e.g.  ari]  or  darp  was 
originally  dfary  (see  §  14/);  the  loss  of  y  and  the  conse¬ 
quent  lengthening  of  one  of  the  neighboring  vowels  (cf. 
fiacnAefos,  /SacriAgos,  /3acnAea >?),  explains  dacrdggv  I  116  and 
dacraro  I  53T,  as  compared  with  dacras  ©  237 ;  decrapev  (dye- 
cragev,  from  lavod)  7  151  but  decrav  7  490  ;  "A t'8o?  T  322  but 
AtSt  A  3,  from  a-fiS  (§  14),  cf .  rj€i8rj<;  X  280  for  ; 

gegacrav  B  863  but  gegciore^  B  818  (gegaforef).  In  evKrjAos 
A  554  ( etcrjXoi  E  759),  the  form  may  have  been  favored  in 
popular  use  by  a  supposed  connection  with  the  adverb  ed, 
which  seemed  so  natural  in  evaSev  H  340  for  efa8ev. 

e.  It  may  be  supposed  that  the  bards  followed  poetic  prece¬ 
dents  in  allowing  hiatus  or  lengthening  before  certain  sylla¬ 
bles  in  which  but  a  minimum  of  the  original  sound  remained  ; 
sometimes,  by  false  analogy,  they  may  have  treated  in  the 
same  way  other  syllables  which  really  had  lost  no  consonant. 

f.  a.  A  syllable  which  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diph¬ 
thong  is  long  by  nature.  Final  at  and  01  are  metrically  long, 
although  short  as  concerns  accentuation. 

/ 3 .  The  quantity  of  some  vowels  is  not  fixed,  as  2A7toAA«- 
vo<$  A  14,  A  7 toAAcov  A  380 ;  Ape?,  ’Ape?  E  31  (if  the  text  is 
right);  ^t£(Te?  T  743,  SlSovlovs  8  84;  cf.  Aiovvaov  A  325 
with  A Luvvcros  Z  135  (which  remained  the  usual  form  in 
Boeotian  dialect,  as  it  is  in  Pindar)  ;  v8wp  a  110,  v8cop  a  146. 

7.  Most  of  these  vowels  with  variable  quantity  were  origi¬ 
nally  long  and  were  becoming  short,  as  the  Homeric  Zero?, 
rcdAos,  and  <£dpo?,  became  Zero?,  /caXo?,  and  <£dpo?  in  Attic 
poetry.  The  penult  of  dvig  was  long  in  Homer  but  occa¬ 
sionally  short  in  Attic  poetry,  peiapcvo  (cf.  aypp  elapivfj  B 
471),  Attic  iapivos,  is  found  on  a  Boeotian  inscription.  It 
is  evident  that  every  vowel  which  at  first  was  long  and  after¬ 
wards  became  short  must  have  had  at  some  time  a  metrical 


§  41,  g.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


89 


quantity  which  could  be  treated  either  as  long  or  short,  i.e. 
its  quantity  was  variable. 

8.  A  trace  of  the  original  d  in  the  ending  of  the  neuter 
plural  remains  perhaps  in  Wvea  elcn  B  87,  where  the  hiatus 
is  justified  as  weak  (§  9  d'). 

e.  For  the  length  of  final  l  in  the  dative  singular  of  the 
third  declension,  see  §  18  a .  n rpLv  in  7 rplv  avr  Z  81  retains 
its  original  length,  as  a  contracted  comparative. 

So  in  Latin,  the  vowels  of  certain  words  had  lost  so 
much  of  their  original  quantity  in  the  time  of  Plautus  that 
he  employed  them  sometimes  as  long,  sometimes  as  short, 
while  in  later  Latin  poetry  they  became  definitely  short. 
Analogous  to  this,  also,  is  the  fact  that  a  short  vowel  before 
a  mute  and  a  liquid  is  generally  long  in  Homer,  while  in 
Attic  it  is  generally  short. 

7].  With  this  variation  of  natural  quantity  may  be  com¬ 
pared  the  double  forms  employed  in  Homer,  —  one  with  a 
single  consonant,  another  with  two  consonants,  as  ’A^WezA 
A  54,  ’AybVeu?  A  199 ;  "OSvcrcrevs  A  430,  ’O Svcrevs  A  494 ; 
'TpLKKrjv  B  729,  T pLfcrjs  A  202;  ott7tco ?  A  344,  oVct)?  A  136; 
pbecraov  T  266,  puecrov  A  481,  kt\.,  many  of  which  doubled  con¬ 
sonants  are  known  to  be  justified  etymologically. 

g.  Sometimes  a  naturally  short  vowel  was  lengthened  (not 
by  the  poet,  but  in  the  speech  of  the  people)  in  order  to 
avoid  the  too  frequent  recurrence  of  short  syllables.  This 
is  illustrated  by  the  rule  for  the  use  of  o  or  co  in  the  compari¬ 
son  of  adjectives  (cro^coTepo?  but  tcovfyoTepof),  by  the  pains 
shown  by  some  of  the  Greek  orators  (as  Demosthenes)  to 
avoid  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  several  short  syllables, 
and  by  the  words  which  have  a  vowel  similarly  lengthened 
in  the  Attic  dialect  (as  aOdvarog,  irpocn')<yopo^,  vTrrjpeTT /?).  We 
find  dvr/p  but  avepeg  Q dvrjp  M  382),  cf.  7]voperj  (Pindar  dv>]p, 
avopea )  Uplapios  but  Ylplapbihrj^;,  Owyarnjp  but  dv^ydrepa  (with 
v  in  all  forms  of  more  than  three  syllables),  airoveovro ,  ayo- 
pdaaOe  but  dyopij,  dOdvaros  but  dOa^rrog,  cf.  r/vepioevra  from 

dpep,og,67rLTOvog  pu  423. 


90 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  41,  h. 


h.  a.  In  Homeric  verse  a  syllable  which  contains  a  short 
vowel  is  long  by  position  when  the  vowel  is  followed  by  a 
double  consonant  (f,  f,  \[r)  or  by  two  or  more  consonants, 
whether  these  are  in  the  same  or  in  the  following  word  or 
are  divided  between  the  two  words. 

ft.  This  rule  holds  good  also  in  case  of  a  mute  followed 
by  a  liquid.  This  combination  rarely  fails  to  make  position 
within  a  word,  and  generally  makes  position  when  it  stands 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word  (as  in rare  tcpeiovrcov  a  45),  espe¬ 
cially  when  this  word  is  closely  connected  with  the  preceding. 

7.  The  influence  of  the  metrical  ictus  on  quantity  is  no¬ 
where  else  so  clear  as  in  strengthening  this  so-called  weak- 
position  before  a  mute  and  a  liquid :  before  this  combination, 
a  short  vowel  is  always  lengthened  (more  than  2600  times) 
in  the  ictus  part  of  the  foot ;  while  lengthening  of  an  ultima 
in  the  arsis  is  found  105  times,  48  of  which  are  in  the  first 
foot  (as  etc  8e  'Kpvo-rjis  A  439,  of.  §  39/)  and  47  in  the  second 
foot  (as  ef  ov  Bp  ra  irpura  A  6).  Of  course  a  short  vowel 
remains  short  only  in  the  unaccented  part  of  the  foot.  See 
i  /3  below. 

i.  a .  Sometimes  a  vowel  remains  short  before  a  mute  fol¬ 
lowed  by  X  or  p,  as  lA(f)po8irrf  T  380,  apL(f)i/3poT7]s  B  389,  dpujil- 
dpvfyrjs  B  700,  irporpciTrecrOcu  Z  336,  vevcre  lApovicov  A  528, 
/ SdXe  Tlpuapiidao  T  356,  yap  pa  IXXvTaipivpcrTprjs  A  113.  These 
words  and  phrases  could  not  have  been  brought  into  the 
verse  if  the  mute  and  liquid  must  make  position,  and  the 
history  of  the  language  shows  that  this  combination  of  mute 
and  liquid  was  losing  its  weight  (cf.f  7  above).  Similarly, 
the  syllable  must  be  short  which  precedes  f3porcop,  TrpoarjvSa, 
rpdire^a. 

(3.  Of  about  570  examples  in  the  Homeric  poems  of  a 
vowel  remaining  short  before  initial  mute  and  liquid,  it  is 
said  that  202  are  in  the  first  short  syllable  of  the  third  foot 
(as  a)?  o'i  puev  roiavra  777)09  dXXpXov 9  dyopevov  E  274),  278  are 
in  the  first  short  syllable  of  the  fifth  foot  (as  icai  puv  (fcwvrjaas 


§  4i,  y.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


91 


eirea  Tirepoevra  7rpocr7]vSa  A  201),  28  are  in  the  first  short  syl¬ 
lable  of  the  first  foot  (as  rj tea  n rpo?  aXkr\\ov<$  T  155),  27  are 
in  the  first  short  syllable  of  the  second  foot  (as  5’  ore  rt? 
re  Spdfcovra  T  33)  ;  while  only  84  are  in  the  second  short  syl¬ 
lable  of  a  dactyl,  25  of  these  being  in  the  first  foot  (as  /cal 
/ 3a\e  IT pcapuiSao  T  356),  and  only  one  of  the  34  being  before 
a  sonant  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  (ra  8e  8pdypcara  A  69). 
It  is  evident  that  the  numbers  in  such  computations  differ 
with  different  texts. 

7.  That  a  mute  and  liquid  do  not  always  make  position 
is  explained  by  the  ease  with  which  the  combination  can  be 
pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  leaving  the  pre¬ 
ceding  vowel  short. 

8.  In  dvSporrjra  XI  6,  a  remains  short  before  three  conso¬ 
nants  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  word  has  replaced  some 
obsolete  synonymous  word  which  suited  the  metre. 

e.  Before  four  words,  two  of  which  begin  with  the  double 
consonant  f  and  two  with  the  two  consonants  cnc  (not  a  mute 
and  a  liquid),  the  preceding  vowel  remains  short :  ol  re  Zd- 
kvvOov  B  634,  ol  8e  Z eXetav  B  824,  rrpo^eovro  'S/cap,dv8pcov  B 
465,  erreird  cncerrapvov  e  237.  Two  of  these  words,  Zd/cvvOos 
and  'Z/cdpiavSpos  (although  the  gods  called  it  Hd^do?,  T  74), 
might  seem  essential  to  the  poet’s  story,  and  might  be  ex¬ 
cused  by  the  greater  freedom  which  is  allowed  to  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  proper  names  in  verse ;  but  there  are  indications  of 
possible  collateral  forms  with  a  single  consonant ;  cf.  /cl8va- 
pcaL  with  a/cihvapuaL  (which  is  always  used  where  the  metre 
permits),  pu/epo ?  with  apu/epoq  (§  12/).  Perhaps  Adi/cwOo^ 
should  be  substituted  for  Z d/cvv6os,  cf.  J aQer\v  A  38  with 
8acj)OLvos  B  308,  Aev^LTTTro^  in  a  Boeotian  inscription  for  Zev- 
^LirTTos,  AdyAy  on  coins  for  Zdy/cArj.  It  is  noteworthy,  how¬ 
ever,  that  Z d/cwOos  was  also  the  Greek  name  of  Saguntum 
and  in  that  word  Z  may  often  have  been  pronounced  nearly 
like  5). 

j.  a.  A  single  A,  pi,  v ,  p,  a,  at  the  beginning  of  certain 


92 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  41,  k. 


words,  may  make  position  (cf.  §  12  b')  :  7 roXXa  Xiacrogevw 

X  91 - l-wu|  —  (cf.  iWlcrcrero  Z  45,  rptWccrros  ©  488, 

TroXvXkLcrTov  e  445,  ou8e  Kara  goipav  II  867  (cf.  aggopov  Z 
408,  8tegoipdro  tj  434,  epitope  A  278,  elgapro  e  312,  of  which 
the  form  of  reduplication  indicates  that  the  stem  was  treated 
as  if  it  began  with  two  consonants,  §  25  o'),  eifea  vifyahecrai 
F  222  (cf.  ayd-vvL(f)ov  A  420  and  English  snow ),  oaa  pe^eaKov 
y  46  (cf.  fepyov,  WorJc,  wrought, ),  v\t)  re  crevairo  T"  198  (cf. 
eacrevovro  B  808,  €7 TicraevecrOai  O  347,  Xaocrcroos  N  128). 

/3.  So  also  8  makes  position  in  the  stem  8l-  (Belaai  fear) 
and  always  in  8pv  long,  as  ygecs  8e  8elaavre^  l  236,  eBeicrev  8'  6 
yepcov  A  88,  cf.  0eov8tg  £121  god-fearing  (for  6eo-8fgf)',  ov 
n  gaXd  8j']v  A  416. 

y.  A  short  vowel  before  a  liquid  is  lengthened  most  fre¬ 
quently  when  it  is  in  the  ictus-syllable  of  the  second  or 
fourth  foot  (seldom  in  the  third  or  fifth  foot)  and  generally 
before  words  which  begin  with  two  short  syllables,  as  evl 
geydpoicn  yeveOXg  E  270. 

k.  It  is  stated  that  a  short  vowel  is  lengthened  123  times 
before  p  (91  times,  not  counting  repetitions),  70  (51)  times 
before  X,  320  (111)  times  before  g,  58  (30)  times  before  v, 
44  (29)  times  before  8,  9  times  before  cr. 

l.  a.  Cognate  languages  and  collateral  dialectic  forms 
show  that  most  words  which  in  the  Attic  dialect  began  with 
p,  once  began  with  crp  or  fp.  This  explains  the  doubling  of 
the  p  after  the  augment  and  in  composition,  as  well  as  its 
230wer  to  make  position  in  Homeric  verse.  85  per  cent,  of 
the  instances  of  lengthening  before  p  are  known  to  be  justi¬ 
fied  etymologically. 

/3.  The  stem  of  the  verb  8eiaai  is  found  on  a  Corinthian 
inscription  as  8 ft.  In  the  Homeric  time,  if  the  p  was  not 
still  pronounced  by  the  Ionians  of  Asia  Minor,  doubtless  the 
8  was  thickened  in  pronunciation  by  the  disappearing  f. 

y.  Of  the  instances  of  lengthening  before  g,  most  are  only 
physiologically  explained;  the  /^-sound  being  easily  continued 


§  41,  o.] 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


93 


until  it  is  virtually  a  double  consonant ;  but  this  lengthening 
occurs  only  before  certain  stems,  not  before  /id^eaOac,  peveiv, 
piovvo ?  kt\. 

m.  One  of  the  consonants  which  made  position  has  often 
been  lost,  as  ypfu  Se  puv  fei/cvla  T  386,  irdpetird/v  A  T93  ( Trap - 
fetird/v ,  §  14)  ;  /3e\os  i^eirev/ce^  A  51,  yap  e^ov  T  49,  irap- 
e^rj  r  113,  from  the  stem  cre;y-,  cf.  avve^e^  l  74  (for  avvcre- 
X6<>)  j  Oeos  m 9  r  230  (for  Oeos  Jws,  §  12  ?),  cf.  /ca/cov  w 9  B  190, 
opviOe 9  W9  r  2,  nre\e/cvs  cos  T  60,  ol  S'  dp '  fcraz^  &)9  ec  T6  B  780. 
Both  consonants  which  made  position  are  occasionally  lost, 
especially  in  the  stem  of  the  third  personal  pronoun  (§  14  c,  7^), 
as  apa  cp  P  196  for  apa  erf  dp,  curb  eo  T  261  for  diro  erfeo.  But 
see  §  14  /. 

n.  <p  seems  to  be  used  as  a  double  consonant  in  Z e^vptf 
7]  119  —  w  w  — ,  ocf)Lv  M  208  —  w,  TTKpavo'Kco  K  478  (although 
here  the  reduplication  7 rt  may  be  considered  long  by  nature, 
cf.  Slcrvcfios  Z  154).  07r</>£9  is  now  written  for  ocfns  in  Hip- 
ponax  Frg.  49,  and  is  justified  etymologically ;  cf.  2 d7rcf>co 
from  the  stem  of  crocfibs,  'la/c^os  from  fdy&),  orc^ov  (oyoz^)  Pin¬ 
dar  01.  Vi  24,  (paioxcTcoves  Aesch.  Choeph.  1047. 

o.  a.  A  long  final  vowel  or  diphthong  in  the  arsis  of  the 
foot  is  shortened  before  a  following  vowel :  ’A rpetSai  re  /cal 
aWoi  iv/cvrjpuSes  'A^atoi  A  17,  rrjv  S'  iyeb  ov  \vcrco  A  29.  The 
shortening  of  a  long  vowel  is  essentially  the  elision  of  half 
the  vowel  (§  9  c?). 

{3.  The  most  frequent  exceptions  to  this  rule  occur  in  the 
first  foot,  less  often  in  the  fourth  foot,  —  before  the  diaereses 
where  hiatus  is  most  common  (§  9  b). 

y.  Final  au ,  oc,  ec  are  most  frequently  shortened  before  an 
initial  vowel.  Final  ol  is  shortened  eight  times  as  often  as 
final  77. 

S.  The  diphthongs  with  v  seem  to  have  been  more  firm  in 
retaining  their  quantity  than  those  with  t.  This  is  explained 
perhaps  by  the  greater  permanence  in  the  language  of  /rover/. 

e.  This  shortening  of  diphthongs  seems  to  indicate  a  ten- 


94 


HOMERIC  VERSE. 


[§  41  ,p. 


dency  of  the  final  i  or  v  of  the  diphthong  to  go  into  its  cog¬ 
nate  y  (/)  or  w  ( p )  sound  and  disappear  (cf.  §  5  y).  In 
Pindar,  also,  a  final  diphthong  is  shortened  far  oftener  (five 
times  as  often)  than  a  long  final  vowel.  Of  course  there  was 
no  hiatus  as  long  as  the  /  or  f  was  spoken. 

Final  w  and  77  are  shortened  before  an  initial  vowel  more 
rarely  than  other  diphthongs.  77,  77,  &>,  w,  ev  are  shortened 
more  frequently  than  elsewhere  when  they  are  in  the  first 
short  syllable  of  the  first  foot,  m  is  seldom  shortened  except 
before  an  e  or  (less  frequently)  an  a. 

p.  a.  Before  a  pause  (as  before  the  close  of  the  verse,  see 
§  39  Jc'),  a  short  vowel  may  be  used  in  place  of  a  long  vowel : 

*  hcirepaai  Tlpidgoio  ttoXiv  A  19 - I  —  ^  w  |  —  v  u  A  A,  cf)ev- 

ycogev  *  ere  yap  ktX.  k  269  - |  w  A  w  ^  |  — ,  e'tar  a/covovres  • 

6  ktX.  a  326  _  w  ^  | - I  w  A .  Not  infrequently  thus  the 

short  final  vowel  of  a  vocative  takes  the  place  of  a  long  syl¬ 
lable,  even  w  vie  Tlerewo  A  338 ;  in  such  cases  the  nominative 
form  frequently  could  be  used.  The  pause  in  the  rhythm 
occupies  the  remainder  of  the  time  which  would  be  spent  in 
pronouncing  a  long  syllable,  Is  1  I  =  I  I.  Before  a  pause, 

also,  a  long  final  vowel  may  preserve  its  quantity  although 
the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel. 

/3.  This  pause,  which  allows  hiatus  and  prevents  the  short¬ 
ening  of  a  final  vowel,  gives  prominence  to  the  syllable  before 
it,  as  etc  yap  ’O pecrrao  /\tlctls  eaaerai  a  40,  01  gev  Bvaogevov 
'T7 replovos  a  24. 

q.  A  few  verses  seem  to  begin  with  a  short  syllable,  as 
€7reL$7]  to  Trpwrov  8  13  (probably  67rf€l ),  (plXe  Kacriyvr\Te  308 
(cf.  <fiTXai  E  117,  €(f)lXaro  E  61),  09  d£ei  H  154  (for  05  f  a£ei  = 
09  fe  ajjei,  cf.  09  a  d%ei  O  183),  09  77877  rd  r  iovra  A  70  (for 
09  ye/877,  §  14),  de/877  p  519  for  dye/8 77  (see  d  above)  ;  /3ope 779 
I  5  is  in  all  Mss.  for  (3opprj 9  (Time.  VI  2).  For  Ze(f>vplrj  77 
119,  see  n  above;  for  o-iw^ek  M  26,  see  m  above;  for  eV/ro- 
^09,  see  g  above ;  but  81a  gev  dcnrlBos  F  357  seems  to  have 
been  used  on  the  analogy  of  BT  Wc^poBlry  ktX. 


GREEK  INDEX. 


[The  references  are  to  pages.] 


oowraTO,  88. 

dPpoTa£op€v,  44. 
aPpoVi],  44. 
dyd'ycopi,  67. 
A/yap€pvovi8T]S,  58. 
d^dvvu}>ov,  92. 
dyrjpaov,  82. 
dyKpepcwrao-a,  42. 
ayvvpi,  45. 
dYfrpavTj,  42. 

®Y°PT1>  22- 

aYporcpdtDV,  60. 

ayu>v,  22. 

aS€\()>£o'o,  51. 
’A8pi](rTivr],  59. 
cUXXo'ttos,  38. 
’A0d«,  52. 
d0avaTT],  56. 
ala,  35. 

AtaKi8r]Si  59. 
(xl-ytoxos,  12. 
AIyvittlovs*  39. 
atSeto,  71. 
atSf'o-cropai,  72. 
’AtSrjs,  22,  55. 
alSolos,  39. 

’'A'iSos,  88. 
’AiSoVSe,  50. 
’A'iStoveus,  56. 
aUl,  38. 
alcTos,  38. 
alGrjp,  23. 

Atveiu,  51. 
atvoTraOt],  39. 
Alo'Xoo,  51. 


dlXp^Td,  51. 
dKaxtiV€V°s>  74. 
aKaxp-evos,  43. 
aKtix^Sarai,  69. 
aKXea,  53. 
okoitis,  39. 
aKOv-rj,  38. 
dKovo-ctav,  68. 
oKpar],  39,  53. 
’AKpicricovTjS}  59. 
aKrats,  51. 
*AKTOpiWV€,  59. 
aXaSf,  50. 
dXaX-qpcu,  66. 
dXaXrjpfiVOs,  74. 
aXaXr|o-0ai,  74. 
aXea(r0€,  73. 
aXis,  45. 
oXki,  55. 

"AXtapos,  58. 
dXXe'lai,  42. 
aXXvSis  aXXos,  36. 
aXo'w,  71. 
aXro,  37,  45,  77. 
aXuivcu,  45. 
dX<j>oiv,  70. 
apPpoTOs,  44. 
apevai,  77. 
appfs  kt\.,  45,  63. 
appopov,  92. 
apo's  /ctA.,  62  f. 
dpir£TraXwv,  42,  66. 
dp<jus,  45. 

if  h*f\ 

ava,  rJ. 
dvdKT€<riv,  52. 


ava£,  45. 
ava£  dv8p«v,  12. 
avSavw,  45,  47. 
avSpficrcri,  52. 
av8poTT]Ta,  91. 
avfiorav,  65. 
avTio'cov,  72. 
a^€T€,  73. 
aoiSo's,  22. 
airfiXtlTTiv,  71. 
airo,  7y. 
dirocupfo,  71. 
dirofi'n-wv,  49. 

aTTOVfiOVTO,  89. 
drrodpas,  48. 
dTT7r£p\j/€l,  42. 
apaio's,  46. 
apapfl,  74. 
’Apyftos,  39. 
dp’yfvvawv,  36,  44 
apfKTov,  43. 

7Ap€s  ”Ap€s,  88. 
’'Apt]v,  54. 

apRPTb  74- 
apvo's,  46. 

>  '  *70 

apowo-iv,  /2. 
ap«ras,  72. 
acrpfvos,  36. 
atTTr curios  yr],  56. 
acr  era,  65. 
curtra,  65. 
curxpa,  55. 
ao-Tv,  45. 
anpiTjci,  87. 
\Axpci8ao,  38. 


96 

GREEK  INDEX. 

’ATpttSriSi  57  f. 

■yXavKawiSj  12. 

SovXtov  r|p.ap,  21. 

’ATpe'twv,  59. 

■yvciiwai,  76. 

8vr],  70. 

arpefia,  45. 

Saijccai,  75. 

8vcr€TO,  73. 

AvY^iaSao,  57. 

Saivuaro,  70. 

Sua-KXe'a,  53. 

avepvtrav,  42. 

SaivvTO,  70. 

8vcrop€voio,  73. 

aviaxot,  48. 

SaKpvo'(f>i,  49. 

8wo-i,  67. 

avTap,  32. 

8ap.aa,  72. 

€  KT  A.,  46. 

avro'Otv,  50. 

8ap,€i£V,  66. 

cayr],  66. 

avTos,  63. 

AapSavtSrjs,  59. 

eaX^v,  66. 

avTot})i,  50. 

AapSaviSwv,  58. 

i'ap,  46. 

auTws,  63. 

AapSavCwvts,  58. 

'TO 

eacrKcs,  <8. 

acjrfei,  65. 

8a<f>oivos,  91. 

tarai,  77. 

’AxauSeSj  58. 

8e  in  apodosis,  30. 

t'pav,  70. 

’AxtXevsj  89. 

-Sc,  50. 

€Prj<r€TO,  74. 

pdXXeo,  69. 

8e8aiaTai,  69. 

t'pXaPcv,  75. 

papSuTTos,  59. 

SetSt'xaTai,  67. 

eySovTrrjcrav,  44. 

PacriXearrepos,  60. 

8eC8ia,  67. 

€"yp-q-y°p0€,  73. 

(3a<riXr]os,  38. 

SeCSoixa,  67. 

€7X«^,  55. 

PePawTa,  68. 

Seious,  54. 

eyX°s,  22. 

PcPrjKCiv,  67. 

Setirvov,  22. 

eScicrev,  92. 

PepXrjKeiv,  45. 

Seurai,  92. 

t'Sva,  46. 

Paopiai,  73. 

Sckto,  77. 

4'SpaKov,  45. 

PeXeWcri,  52. 

8e£iov,  80. 

tSvVcTO,  74. 

Peopai,  73. 

AeuKaXiSrjs,  58  f. 

€€£koo-i,  49. 

Pt]V€o,  73. 

8evTaTOS,  61. 

ee'X8a>p,  49. 

pCrj  'HpaKXi^tCr],  21,  54. 

Se'xaTai,  66. 

teXirtTo,  66. 

pXrjTo,  77. 

Srf,  29. 

€TJK€,  66. 

PoXeTai,  38. 

8t)  avT€,  39. 

€T]v8av€,  36,  66. 

Bopcw,  51. 

8t]€is,  73. 

e-rjos,  56. 

Povs  Tavpos,  14. 

8t]LOW€V,  72. 

€T|s,  64. 

BpurtpSa,  58. 

8t]XT](rr]Tai,  70. 

€0€V,  50,  62. 

PpoTos,  44. 

8rjp.ov  4>r}fus,  83. 

i'0vos,  46. 

"yairjoxos,  12. 

Srfv,  92. 

etapivT)*,  88. 

■yaXou),  52. 

SiappaicrecOai,  74. 

€iaTo,  77. 

■Yao-TpT]v,  55. 

8i8ovvai,  68,  75. 

ttSov,  66. 

ye,  29. 

8i8ov<ri,  75. 

«i!Kocn,  46. 

ye'\(os ,  53. 

SiSwcra),  75. 

tiKuia,  74. 

■yevoiaTO,  69. 

8iep.oipaTo,  92. 

el'Kw,  46. 

9  rr  hr 

-y€VTO,  77. 

Sterpia-yev,  70. 

eipapTo,  92. 

■ye  pa,  53. 

SutjnXos,  52. 

elv,  79. 

Tl,  35. 

8iX0d,  44. 

etvai  ktA.,  34. 

yr]0T)crai,  68. 

8iwk€tov,  67. 

clv£,  79. 

^Tipas,  77. 

Auovvcros,  88. 

tio,  62. 

■yXavKWTriSa,  53. 

8o«h  kt a.,  61. 

tlos,  37. 

GREEK  INDEX. 


97 


elpirov,  66. 
el'pco,  46. 
el's,  76. 
etcr0a,  76. 
eKcUp'yos,  35. 

6KCLS,  46. 

€  KCLCTTOS)  46. 

CKaTTiPeXcrao,  35. 
€KaTT]Po\oV,  35. 
CKaTOlO,  35,  58. 

€K8vp.€V,  70. 
eK€l0l,  64. 
ck6 kXcto,  60. 

4'ktjo,,  73. 

CKTjPoXoV,  35. 
e  kXco,  71. 
eKpe'pO),  69. 

it  TT 

6KTa,  /  i . 
eKTTjcr0ai,  67. 

eKupos,  46  f. 

€KWV,  40. 
eXaav,  71. 
eXacracrKe,  78. 
eXea-Ke,  78. 
eXev'0epov  ifpap,  21. 
€Xr]Xe8aTo,  69. 

&i£,  46. 
eXXa(5e,  66. 
eXXCo'o-e'ro,  92. 
eXXiraveucra,  66. 
eXiris,  40. 
eXtrai,  73. 
epe'0ev,  50,  02. 

€|A€LO,  62  f. 
ifie'o,  62. 
cfnyqv,  75. 
eppaOes,  66. 

eppev(cu)  ktA.,34,43,  76. 

epiralov,  38. 

£p.TT€(|)UVla,  l  3. 
ev  8e',  78. 
evSioi,  80. 
eve  v  tire,  06. 

*t  TCI 

€  vi)  7y. 


evveire,  43. 
e’wrjKOVTa,  61. 
evwpi,  44,  46. 
6VVVXlol»  ^O. 
evTo,  76. 
i|,  46  f. 

79.  , 

e’fjaXcura^cu,  73. 
eot,  62. 
eoiKa,  66. 
eoXara,  66. 
eopye,  66. 
e'o's,  63. 
eV,  79. 
eTre'irXwSj  77. 

eire^paSe,  66. 

it 

eiri,  iv. 

6TrLPrjcrop.€VOV,  73. 
€m(3wcropcu,  39. 
eTncro-eueo-Oai,  92. 
eiricrTapeVcjs,  81. 
eiriTOVOs,  89. 
e'irop4>aXi,ov,  80. 
eiros,  22,  46. 
eTrpaOov,  45. 
epa£e,  50. 
e’pavvrjv,  36,  44. 
epctTTTopev,  66. 
ep^yov,  46. 
epepewrj,  36,  44. 
epe£e,  66. 
epeiopev,  76. 
epe£a,  43,  66. 
e’ptySou'iros,  12,  44. 
epiSoinrw,  44. 
epos,  o7. 
eppaSaTai,  69. 
e’pvKaKe,  66. 
e’pvVaxo,  66. 
epino,  46. 

epxaTai,  66. 

epws,  37,  53. 
eo-av,  76. 
e'cnre'pioi,  80. 


eVirepos,  46. 
e<nra,  44. 
ecrcrai,  66. 
ecrcrelTtu,  73,  76. 

it  70 

6o-o"€va,  16. 
eVcrevovTO,  92. 
eo'cri,  76. 
ecrcro,  69,  76. 
eco'opai,  44. 
eoro-vpevos,  74. 
eo-trupe'vcos,  81. 

ecrcrvTo,  1 1 . 
eo-Tav,  70. 
ecrTparo'ajVTO,  72 
eorTcov,  68. 
e’o-xctpo'tljLV,  49. 
eVatpos,  38. 
eVapos,  35. 
ereXeieTo,  72. 


eVerpe,  66. 
eVevxeTOV,  67. 
eTTjs,  46. 

€TOSs  46. 
e-uaSev,  48,  88. 
eviSov,  49. 
evK-qXos,  88. 
evicXetas,  53. 

e’vKVT]pl8€S,  12. 
evppeXCo),  51. 
€1JVT]<}hV,  49. 
evpe’a,  56. 
evppetos,  54. 
evpvo-rra,  51. 
ecj)’,  79. 
e'xevev,  73. 
Zc£kvv0os,  91. 
Zecjmpu],  93. 
Ztjvo's  ktA.,  56. 

S*  T  it  i  9  on 

■n>  ”n> 

TjPwovres,  71. 
rfyepOev,  70. 
rjSvs,  46. 

TieCS^s,  66  f.,  88. 
tpXios,  45. 


98 


GREEK  INDEX. 


T]€pU],  80. 
r)0os,  46. 

rjlKTO,  66. 

tjXfuaTo,  73. 

r[\a),  66. 

T]p.ap,  45. 

■qpas,  62. 

TIJxPpOTOV,  44. 
T]p.€T€pOv8€,  50. 
rfv,  37,  76. 

Tj'v8av€,  66. 

TjvtiKav,  73. 
t|vloxt}€S,  55. 

T]ViiraTT€,  66. 

■qvaryeiv,  45. 
rjvcjyov,  74. 

T]|€,  66. 

ovk,  39. 
rjpa,  47. 

Tjpwos,  38. 
rfpws,  22. 
T]CTK€IV,  45. 
t]4»l  (3u]<}y,,  49. 
’Hw  Slav,  83. 
T]W0l,  50. 
0apcr€vs,  39,  53. 
0avp.a£co,  22. 
0€a,  37. 

0eais,  51. 

0€UO,  76. 

-0ev,  50. 
OtociSca,  39. 
0£ov8t]s ,  92. 
0€o<})iVj  50. 
0€pevs,  39. 
0€po-in]Sj  36. 
©e'crireiav,  56. 
0T)XvT€pai,  60. 
-0i,  50. 

0ovpiSa,  57. 
Opacros,  45. 
0p€'£ao-Kov,  78. 
0v-yaT€pa>  89. 
©vtcrTa,  51. 


OupopaurTeaiv,  43. 
0<Up€(OV,  51. 

0VpT]0l,  50. 

0v'pT]4>l,  51. 

0va>,  22. 

0copT]x0Tivai,  74. 

\.a  ktA.,  60. 
lax«,  46. 

ISetv,  46. 

\!8r]ai,  69. 

"IS'qOev,  50. 
i8p€v(ai),  43,  77. 
ISptos,  53. 

Ufa],  76. 
icuri,  to,  70. 

HkcXos,  46. 
iXt]0l,  68. 

’IXioo,  51. 

"IXios,  23,  47. 

I£ov,  73. 

I'ov,  46. 

'lTnroTa8r]s,  57. 
Lpa,  39. 
l'pt]K€s,  39. 
l'pT]£  KipKOS,  14. 
’Ipis,  47. 
ts,  14>t,  46. 
t'o-av,  77. 

Itros,  23,  46,  88. 
‘IcTCaiav,  39. 

I'tvs,  47. 

tip,  60. 

KaPPaXev,  42. 
ko.8  8e,  42. 
KaKK€lOVT€S,  73. 
KaKo|€lVWT6pOS>  60. 
KaKTave,  42. 
KaXeouo-a,  72. 
KaXXnre,  42. 

KdXos,  23,  88. 
Ka.'irrrecrtTTiv,  42. 
koitt  <j>aXapa,  42. 
Kcup-r]  ktA.,  53. 
nappe  £ov<ra,  42. 


KapTUTTOl,  45. 
Kao-Topvvtra,  42. 
koctx€0€,  42. 
kcit’,  79. 

KaTaiPaTai,  79. 
K€8atr0evT€S,  44. 

K€101,  50. 

Keivos,  80. 

K€Ka8r]'(r€i,  67. 

K€  kXt]"YOVT€S,  68. 

K€Kopv0pe'vos,  43. 
K6CTK6TO,  77. 

Kifaiev,  68. 

KT]OJJL€V,  73. 

KT)po0l,  50. 

KLCOV,  £o. 

KXaiO  VT€0"0"l,  52. 
kXvT€,  77. 

KVrjoTl,  52. 
koiXos,  39. 
KopicrcraTO,  72. 

Kope'ei,  72. 
Kopv0aioXos,  12. 
Kocrpew,  22. 
KOTvXr]8ovo4)t,  49. 
Kovpoi  ’Axcucov,  12. 
KpaaTa  kt A.,  53. 
KpaT€(r<})L,  50. 

Kpeiwv,  54. 

Kpepoco,  72. 

Kprj0€V,  53. 

Kpiva),  22. 

Kpovicov,  58. 
KpvTrrao-K€,  78. 
KTap.€VOlO,  74. 
KVVTtpOV,  60. 

Kvpo-as,  73. 
AaepTiaSris,  57. 
Aaop€8ovTia8'qs,  58  f. 
Xao’s,  37. 

Xaotrcroos,  92. 
XdpwTaTos,  60. 
Xa4>vcro-€Tov,  67. 
XeXaxwtrt,  66. 


GREEK  INDEX. 


99 


XcXvvto,  70. 

XcvKwXtvos,  12. 

Xcryos,  22. 

Xo€,  38. 

Xwiov,  60. 

XwToxJvTa,  39. 

fiav,  37. 

pdcrrie,  55. 

p.60€p.€V,  76. 

p.€  padres,  88. 

pe'pjlXeTO,  |xe'|x(3XcOK€,  44. 

p.€fXVT]CrCH,  69. 

MtvoLTiaSris,  57  f. 
Jl€p|lT)'pl|€,  73. 
peVcrov,  89. 
pe'ra,  79. 
peTaSo'pmos,  80. 
peTaTpeVr),  69. 
p€T6t(0,  76. 
perwmov,  80. 

|rq  aXXou,  39. 
pr]8e'v,  61. 
prjn,  52. 
pt]Tl€Ta,  51. 

pi*ye'axrtv,  pi^rjcrttrOai.  ,75. 

pipvatw,  55. 

piv,  62. 

podvos,  38. 

pu0e'ai,  pu0etai,  71. 

pvpia,  61. 

Nauo-iKaa,  37. 
vcu)({h,  49  f. 
veCaTov,  60. 

V€lK€lT]0"l,  V€(k€0-<T€,  72. 
V€lK€0"0"l,  43. 

V€KXJ(rcri,  52. 
vevpa,  56. 
ve^eXrj-yepe'Ta,  36. 
Nt|pr|i8€s,  58. 
vr|ds,  54. 
voe'u>,  22. 

vocrnpov  ifpap,  21. 
£etvos,  38. 

£dviev,  70. 


o',  os,  :ct\.,  64. 

o*y8o'aTos,  o*y8oov,  61. 
o'ySwKovra,  39. 
d'8e,  80. 
d8prjv,  43. 

’OSwev's,  89. 

’OSuo-eds,  54. 
OiSi-rroSao,  56. 
oiko0i,  51 ;  otKo'vSe,  50. 
oIkos,  47. 

’OiXid8r]S,  58. 
olvos,  47. 
ols,  39. 
oia-e'pevai,  73. 
oXe'ea-Oai,  72. 
oXe'Opiov  rjpap,  21. 
oXot],  38. 

’OXvpmaSes,  57. 
opodpai,  39. 
ovSe  8opov8e,  50. 

It  OO 

ovop.ai,  Jo. 
do,  51. 
oov,  64. 

oTrirctfs,  43,  89 ;  oirws,  29. 
opav,  opdo-0ai,  74. 
Op€(TTCpOS,  60. 
dpeo-4>i>v,  50. 
opTiat,  71. 

opvicriv  aryumoio-iv,  14. 

»r  —  O 

Op(T€0,  tO. 

dp4>aviKov  rfpap,  21. 
opiope,  74. 
opwpe'xaTai,  69. 
ot,  41. 

OTeOKTl,  OT€V,  65. 

tr  ft  c*  rt 

OTLVa,  OTT€0,  OO. 

>  \  >r  n  Q 

ov  -yap  €Ti,  *o. 
odSe'v,  60. 
od'Seos,  53. 
ovpos,  40. 

Odpaviwves,  57. 
ovpos,  38. 
ovs  (o'as),  53. 
ovra,  71,  77. 


ovtcl^w,  23. 

ovtos,  80. 

d<j>e'XXeiev,  36,  44. 
dtjnv,  93. 
o'4>pa,  29. 
ov|/€o-0€,  73. 
ttchs,  39. 

7ravr]pepioi,  80. 
iravvvx>os,  80. 

Trapa  8e,  78. 

Trap’,  -irapai,  79. 
irapeiwv,  51. 
irdpe'xTl,  93. 

'irapcrT'qcTOV,  76. 
irao-ais,  51. 

IlaTpdKXeis,  56. 
-iraTpocjjovrja,  55. 
iraTpcov,  53. 

-Trego's,  80. 

Tmvdcov,  71. 
irepirw,  23. 

7rsm0T]Va),  67. 

irtTriOoipriv,  66. 

TrepiSef-ios,  86. 
irepi8wp€0ov,  69. 
TT€0-€OVTai.,  73. 

XlgTCaio,  51. 
irevOopat,  53. 
TretfjiSriVeTai,  67. 
IlT|Xeicjv,  59. 
nriXeicovdSe,  50. 
-ino-vpas,  61. 

Tri^avo-Kw,  93. 
IIXaTaiav,  56. 
irXe'as,  -rrXe'es,  60. 
TrXevpa,  56. 

Tro8dpKT]S,  12,  34  f. 
7roSouv,  52. 

TTO0T]'p€Vai,  72. 

7roXeas,  57. 

TroXe'tcrtri,  57. 
iroXL-qTas,  55. 

'iro'XiosrlO;  TToXts  ktA.,54. 
iroXXaKi,  45. 


100 

iroXXo's,  57. 
ttoXvXXkttov,  92. 
irovTOiropovo~r]S,  39. 
irovTo'<j>i,  49. 
irocrcri,  37,  43. 
itoti,  79. 
irovXv's,  38,  57. 
irpeVPa,  57. 

TrpT]vrjs>  80. 
IIpiaplSTjs,  89. 
irptv,  89. 

irpof3XwcrK€lV,  44. 
irpo0vplT]o-i,  87. 
irpoaavS-qTTjv,  71. 
‘irpotrioTrara,  53. 
irpoTi,  79. 

Trpov<J>aive,  40. 
Trpovxovxo,  40. 
irpocJ)pao'<ra,  57. 
Trpot})pajv,  80. 
‘irpwTurros,  60. 
irroXepl£op€V,  73. 
irro'Xepos,  44. 

TTToXlS,  44. 
iruXe'wv,  51. 
irwXe'ai,  72. 
f>d,  29. 

paa-traTe,  69. 
pepvirwpe'va,  67. 
piTTTCUrKC,  78. 

(raw,  71. 

ere  dev,  50  ;  o-eto,  62  f. 
Seiprjvouv,  52. 
EKapavSpos,  91. 
Xpiv0ev,  58. 
trireto,  71. 

<nreiovs,  37. 
cnre'crcri,  52. 
trirr]€<rcri,  54. 
O’TT]0€O”cjHV>  50. 
trvv€X€Ps,  93. 

(TVOS  KOTTpOV,  14. 
cr4>e ,  62. 
o-wpa,  23. 


GREEK  INDEX. 
t*>  41. 

TaXaiovlSao,  59. 
TaXavpivov,  48. 
xdXXa,  40. 

Tax,€«s,  81. 
re',  29. 

T€'0va0i,  68. 
X€0VT]WXOS,  68. 

TeXapwviaSrjs,  59. 
TeXap.wvi.os,  59. 

xeoio,  62. 
xeotoa,  65. 
xepmKe'pavvos,  45. 
xe'xXa0i,  68. 
xexpa4>axo,  69. 

X6XVKOVXO,  66. 

rev,  65. 

T€X.VT]e'vTWS,  81. 

T€X.VT]{rcrai,  39. 

Te'wv,  65. 

Ti.0et,  xiOrjpevos,  75. 
Ti0rjp.i,  23. 

Tip.rjs,  39. 

Tioreiav,  68. 
xo£,  xal,  k tA.,  64. 
xoicrSecriv,  64. 
ToicrSeo-criv,  64. 
xouri  8’  dve'crTT],  27. 
xovveKa,  40. 
xpaire Co pev,  45,  75. 
xpcujrev,  70. 
xp£XXio-xos,  92. 
Tpix0a,  44. 

TpwiaSwv,  58. 

TvSrj,  39. 

XVVT],  62. 

vf3(3dXXeiv,  42. 
vies  ’A\aiwv,  12. 
vlo's,  vlos,  kt A.,  55. 
vpelwv,  62. 
vpp.es,  ktA.,  63. 
vpo's  ktA.,  62  f. 
viral,  79. 
virai0a,  35,  50. 


viretp,  79. 
virepSe'a,  53. 
'YirepiovlSao,  59. 
virepoirXiTjcTL,  87. 
virvwovxas,  72. 
<|)dav0ev,  70,  75. 
4>aavxaxos,  60. 
4>dvecrK€,  78. 

(j>ao,  76. 

<j>apos,  23,  88. 
cjjevyo'vTwv,  68. 
cjnjpcrlv,  36. 

4>0r)criv,  67. 

4>0tpr|V,  4>0ito,  70. 

49. 

tjnXevvTas,  39. 
(JnXrjpevai,  72. 
cJ)Xl\J/€Tai,  36. 

4>o'(3os,  23. 

<J>opr]vai,  72. 

<J>o'ws,  37. 

4>v-ya8e,  50. 

<j>v£a,  23. 

<j>vXaKov's,  55. 
XaXKox.iTwvwv,  12. 
XapaievvaSes,  38. 

X€ip,  38. 

Xt] pels,  40. 

X0t£o's,  79. 

Xp«w,  40. 

Xprj  ktA.,  28. 
Xpvo-rpSa,  58. 
w  aptyvwxe,  40. 
wSvcrao,  69. 

W0€O"K€,  78. 

WKICTTOS,  59. 
wKvpo'w,  43. 
wpio-Tos,  40. 
wpope,  74 ;  wpo’e,  73. 
ws  (postpositive),  44. 
ws,  64. 

ws  S’  avrws,  64. 
wo"Te  with  inf.,  26. 
WVTOS,  40. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


[The  references  are  to  pages.] 


Adjectives,  56  f. 

Adjective  in  apposition  with  noun,  9. 
Adverbs,  79  f. 

Accent  of  words,  different  from  At¬ 
tic,  23. 

Aeolic  elements  in  Homeric  dialect, 
35  f. 

Alphabet,  transfer  from  the  earlier,  37. 
Alliteration,  15. 

Amphimacer,  87. 

Anastrophe,  79. 

Anomalous  forms,  55  f. 

Apocope,  42  f. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  1,  7. 

•  Article,  63  f. 

Asyndeton,  18  f. 

Attic  reduplication,  66. 

Attic  second  declension,  52. 

Augment,  65  f. 

Bentley,  47. 

Bryant,  6. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  85. 

Caesural  pauses,  83  ff. 

Cases  retain  original  force,  25. 
Changes  in  meaning  and  use  of  words, 
22  f. 

Change  of  subject,  7  f. 

Chapman,  2  f. 

Chiasmus,  19. 

Comparisons,  16  ff. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  59  f. 
Consonants,  43  ff. 

Contraction,  39. 

Contract  verbs,  70  ff. 

Convenience  of  verse,  34,  86  f. 
Conventional  epithets,  11  ff. 
Copulative  for  disjunctive  conjunc¬ 
tions,  32. 


Correlative  constructions,  31  f. 
Cowper,  4  f. 

Crasis,  40. 

Dactyls,  81  f. 

Dative  of  interest,  26  f. 

Dative  with  ini,  vno,  avv,  or  a fia,  27  f. 
Demonstrative  pronouns,  63  f. 

Derby,  Lord,  5  f. 

Digamma,  45  ff. 

Diphthongs  shortened,  93  f. 

Direct  discourse,  7  f. 

Elision,  41  f. 

Epanalepsis,  20. 

Epexegesis,  13  f. 

in LTT\OK'fl ,  20. 

Epithets,  11  ff.,  34  f. 

Errors  in  transmission  of  text  of 
poems,  36  f. 

Eeminine  caesura,  84. 

First  aorist  active  and  middle,  72  f. 
First  declension,  50  f. 

Future  active  and  middle,  72  f„ 
Future  passive,  75. 

Genitive  absolute,  26. 

Genitive  in  -oo,  51. 

Hepthemimeral  caesura,  84. 
Hexameter  verse,  81  ff. 

Hiatus,  40  f. 

Hysteron  proteron,  22. 

Indefinite  pronoun,  65. 

Infinitive  with  acc.,  26. 

Infinitive  with  ware,  26. 

Intensive  pronoun,  63. 

Interrogative  particles,  29. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  65. 

Ionic  dialect,  35. 

Iterative  forms,  77  f. 

Jod,  44. 


102 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Litotes,  20  f. 

Long  vowels  shortened,  93  f. 
Masculine  caesura,  84. 

Meaning  of  words  changed,  22  f. 
Metathesis,  45. 

Middle  voice,  74. 

-jut,  verbs  in,  75  f. 

Mute  and  liquid  make  position,  90. 
Newman,  F.  W.,  5. 
v  movable,  45. 

Numerals,  60  f. 

Old  and  new  forms  side  by  side,  34. 
Onomatopoeia,  15. 

Optative  mode,  24  f.,  70. 

Order  of  words,  9  ff. 

Parasitic  v,  44. 

Parataxis,  30  f. 

J  * 

Parechesis,  15. 

Participial  construction  deserted,  8. 
Participle  has  principal  thought,  33. 
Particles,  28  f. 

Passive  voice,  75. 

Patronymics,  57  ff. 

Penthemimeral  caesura,  84. 

Perfect,  73  f. 

Periphrasis,  21. 

Personal  pronouns,  62  f. 

Pope,  3  f. 

Possessive  Pronouns,  62  f. 
Prepositions,  25,  78  f. 

Principal  clauses,  8. 

Pronouns,  62  ff. 


Quantity,  86  ff. 

Reduplication,  66. 

Relative  pronoun,  64. 

Relative  not  the  first  word  in  its 
clause,  10. 

Rough  breathing,  45. 

Second  aorist  without  variable  vowel, 
77. 

Second  declension,  51. 

Short  mode-vowel  in  subjunctive,  70, 
75,  76. 

Single  consonant  makes  position,  91  f. 
c  movable,  45. 

Special  case-endiiigs,  49  f. 

Spondaic  verses,  83. 

Spondees,  81. 

Stereotyped  expressions,  14. 
Subjunctive  mode,  24,  70. 

Synizesis,  39  f. 

Synonymous  expressions,  13. 
Tennyson,  6. 

Third  declension,  52  ff. 

Variations  of  natural  quantity,  88. 
Vau,  45  ff. 

Verb-endings,  67  ff. 

Verbal  adjectives,  28. 

Vocalization  of  p,  48  f. 

Vowels  and  diphthongs,  37  f. 

Words  lacking  in  Homeric  vocabu¬ 
lary,  23. 

Zeugma,  21  f. 

Yod,  44. 


PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED  OR  REFERRED  TO 


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68,  73 . 

. 14 

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671  ff.  . . 

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450,  453  ff . . .  32 

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125 . . . 

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539 .. . 

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399  f . . 

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128 .. . 

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553 .. . 

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r  33 . 

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472  f.  . 

. 15 

133 .. . 

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558  f. . 

. 19 

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568 .. . 

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104  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED  OR  REFERRED  TO. 


E  596 . . 

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0  723  . . . 

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a  45 . 

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668  ff. 

. 15 

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736 .. . 

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.16 

306  . 

146.. 

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n  126  ff. 

...  .19 

82  f . 

.14 

394  ff . 

147  f. 

. 32 

367  ... 

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86  f . 

Y  26 . 

237  .. 

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P  50  f . . . 

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.27 

30 . 

395  f. 

. 20 

389  ff. 

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.11 

108 . 

429  ff. 

. 31 

626 ... 

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507  .. 

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2  26 . 

....  13 

127  ff . 

.10 

171 . 

H 13  ff. 

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128  f.  . 

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198 . 

429.. 

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219.... 

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132  f . 

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321 . 

0  555  ff. 

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T  49 . 

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161 . 

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0  107 . 

1 186  f. 

. 11 

175.... 

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174  ff . 

.29 

122 . 

379.. 

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Y  371  f. . 

... .20 

242,  299  f . . 

.13 

275  . 

575.. 

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4>  190  f.  . 

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308 ... 

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332 . 

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362  ... 

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A  36... 

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489  f. . 

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166  f . 

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537  ... 

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170  f . 

130.. 

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X  91 . 

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178 . 

317  .. 

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126  ff. 

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p  10 . 

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408,  410  ff.  . 

319  f. 

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222  ff.,760  ff..l7 

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409 ...... . 

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158  .. 

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fl  38 . 

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t-H 

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154  ... 

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492  ff. 

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611  .. 

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536  . . . . 

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695  f. 

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264,  280... 

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p  23 . 

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730 .. . 

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489  f . 

418  . . 

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a  1 . .  8,  64,  81,  84 

136  f . 

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407  ff . 

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451  ff . 

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564  ff . 

395  f. 

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463,  634... 

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,15 


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